3-hydroxypropionic acid and other organic compounds

ABSTRACT

Methods and materials related to producing 3-HP as well as other organic compounds are disclosed. Specifically, isolated nucleic acids, polypeptides, host cells, and methods and materials for producing 3-HP and other organic compounds are disclosed.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This is a divisional application of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/467,165 filed May 9, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,501,455, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/294,820 filed Nov. 11, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,198,066, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/127,700 filed May 27, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,076,120, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/539,856 filed Oct. 9, 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,638,316, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/432,443 filed Oct. 20, 2003 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,186,541, which is the National Stage of International Application No. PCT/US01/43607, filed Nov. 20, 2001, which in turn claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 60/252,123 filed Nov. 20, 2000, 60/285,478 filed Apr. 20, 2001, 60/306,727 filed Jul. 20, 2001, and 60/317,845 filed Sep. 7, 2001, all herein incorporated by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to enzymes and methods that can be used to produce organic acids and related products.

BACKGROUND

Organic chemicals such as organic acids, esters, and polyols can be used to synthesize plastic materials and other products. To meet the increasing demand for organic chemicals, more efficient and cost effective production methods are being developed which utilize raw materials based on carbohydrates rather than hydrocarbons. For example, certain bacteria have been used to produce large quantities of lactic acid used in the production of polylactic acid.

3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP) is an organic acid. Although several chemical synthesis routes have been described to produce 3-HP, only one biocatalytic route has been heretofore previously disclosed (WO 01/16346 to Suthers, et al.). 3-HP has utility for specialty synthesis and can be converted to commercially important intermediates by known art in the chemical industry, e.g., acrylic acid by dehydration, malonic acid by oxidation, esters by esterification reactions with alcohols, and reduction to 1,3 propanediol.

SUMMARY

The invention relates to methods and materials involved in producing 3-hydroxypropionic acid and other organic compounds (e.g., 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, esters of 3-HP, and malonic acid and its esters). Specifically, the invention provides nucleic acid molecules, polypeptides, host cells, and methods that can be used to produce 3-HP and other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, esters of 3-HP, and malonic acid and its esters. 3-HP has potential to be both biologically and commercially important. For example, the nutritional industry can use 3-HP as a food, feed additive or preservative, while the derivatives mentioned above can be produced from 3-HP. The nucleic acid molecules described herein can be used to engineer host cells with the ability to produce 3-HP as well as other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, and esters of 3-HP. The polypeptides described herein can be used in cell-free systems to make 3-HP as well as other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, and esters of 3-HP. The host cells described herein can be used in culture systems to produce large quantities of 3-HP as well as other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, and esters of 3-HP.

One aspect of the invention provides cells that have lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity, and methods of making products such as those described herein by culturing at least one of the cells that have lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. In some embodiments, the cell can also contain an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes one or more of the following polypeptides: a polypeptide having E1 activator activity; an E2 α polypeptide that is a subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; an E2 β polypeptide that is a subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; and a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. Additionally, the cell can have CoA transferase activity, CoA synthetase activity, poly hydroxyacid synthase activity, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity, 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity, and/or lipase activity. Moreover, the cell can contain at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that expresses one or more polypeptides that have CoA transferase activity, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity, 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity, CoA synthetase activity, poly hydroxyacid synthase activity, and/or lipase activity.

In another embodiment of the invention, the cell that has lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity produces a product, for example, 3-HP, polymerized 3-HP, and/or an ester of 3-HP, such as methyl hydroxypropionate, ethyl hydroxypropionate, propyl hydroxypropionate, and/or butyl hydroxypropionate. Accordingly, the invention also provides methods of producing one or more of these products. These methods involve culturing the cell that has lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity under conditions that allow the product to be produced. These cells also can have CoA synthetase activity and/or poly hydroxyacid synthase activity.

Another aspect of the invention provides cells that have CoA synthetase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity, and poly hydroxyacid synthase activity. In some embodiments, these cells also can contain an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes one or more of the following polypeptides: a polypeptide having E1 activator activity; an E2 α polypeptide that is a subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; an E2 β polypeptide that is a subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; a polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity; and a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity.

In another embodiment of the invention, the cell that has CoA synthetase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity, and poly hydroxyacid synthase activity can produce a product, for example, polymerized acrylate.

Another aspect of the invention provides a cell comprising CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity, and lipase activity. In some embodiments, the cell also can contain an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes one or more of the following polypeptides: a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity; a polypeptide having E1 activator activity; an E2 α polypeptide that is a subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; an E2 β polypeptide that is a subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; and a polypeptide having lipase activity. This cell can be used, among other things, to produce products such as esters of acrylate (e.g., methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, propyl acrylate, and butyl acrylate).

In some embodiments, 1,3 propanediol can be created from either 3-HP-CoA or 3-HP via the use of polypeptides having enzymatic activity. These polypeptides can be used either in vitro or in vivo. When converting 3-HP-CoA to 1,3 propanediol, polypeptides having oxidoreductase activity or reductase activity (e.g., enzymes from the 1.1.1.-class of enzymes) can be used. Alternatively, when creating 1,3 propanediol from 3-HP, a combination of (1) a polypeptide having aldyhyde dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.34 class) and (2) a polypeptide having alcohol dehydrogenase activity (e.g., an enzyme from the 1.1.1.32 class) can be used.

In some embodiments of the invention, products are produced in vitro (outside of a cell). In other embodiments of the invention, products are produced using a combination of in vitro and in vivo (within a cell) methods. In yet other embodiments of the invention, products are produced in vivo. For methods involving in vivo steps, the cells can be isolated cultured cells or whole organisms such as transgenic plants, non-human mammals, or single-celled organisms such as yeast and bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bacillus, and Escherichia cells). Hereinafter such cells are referred to as production cells. Products produced by these production cells can be organic products such as 3-HP and/or the nucleic acid molecules and polypeptides described herein.

Another aspect of the invention provides polypeptides having an amino acid sequence that (1) is set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161, (2) is at least 10 contiguous amino acid residues of a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161, (3) has at least 65 percent sequence identity with at least 10 contiguous amino acid residues of a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161, (4) is a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 having conservative amino acid substitutions, or (5) has at least 65 percent sequence identity with a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. Accordingly, the invention also provides nucleic acid sequences that encode any of the polypeptides described herein as well as specific binding agents that bind to any of the polypeptides described herein. Likewise, the invention provides transformed cells that contain any of the nucleic acid sequences that encode any of the polypeptides described herein. These cells can be used to produce nucleic acid molecules, polypeptides, and organic compounds. The polypeptides can be used to catalyze the formation of organic compounds or can be used as antigens to create specific binding agents.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid molecules that contain at least one of the following nucleic acid sequences: (1) a nucleic acid sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163; (2) a nucleic acid sequence having at least 10 consecutive nucleotides from a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163; (3) a nucleic acid sequences that hybridize under hybridization conditions (e.g., moderately or highly stringent hybridization conditions) to a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163; (4) a nucleic acid sequence having 65 percent sequence identity with at least 10 consecutive nucleotides from a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163; and (5) a nucleic acid sequence having at least 65 percent sequence identity with a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. Accordingly, the invention also provides a production cell that contains at least one exogenous nucleic acid having any the nucleic acid sequences provided above. The production cell can be used to express polypeptides that have an enzymatic activity such as CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity, CoA synthase activity, dehydratase activity, dehydrogenase activity, malonyl CoA reductase activity, β-alanine ammonia lyase activity, and/or 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. Accordingly, the invention also provides methods of producing polypeptides encoded by the nucleic acid sequences described above.

The invention also provides several methods such as methods for making 3-HP from lactate, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), or pyruvate. In some embodiments, methods for making 3-HP from lactate, PEP, or pyruvate involve culturing a cell containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid under conditions that allow the cell to produce 3-HP. These methods can be practiced using the various types of production cells described herein. In some embodiments, the production cells can have one or more of the following activities: CoA transferase activity, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity, 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity, dehydratase activity, and/or malonyl CoA reductase activity.

In other embodiments, the methods involve making 3-HP wherein lactate is contacted with a first polypeptide having CoA transferase activity or CoA synthetase activity such that lactyl-CoA is formed, then contacting lactyl-CoA with a second polypeptide having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity to form acrylyl-CoA, then contacting acrylyl-CoA with a third polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity to form 3-hydroxypropionic acid-CoA, and then contacting 3-hydroxypropionic acid-CoA with the first polypeptide to form 3-HP or with a fourth polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity or 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity to form 3-HP.

Another aspect of the invention provides methods for making polymerized 3-HP. These methods involve making 3-hydroxypropionic acid-CoA as described above, and then contacting the 3-hydroxypropionic acid-CoA with a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity to form polymerized 3-HP.

In yet another embodiment of the invention, methods for making an ester of 3-HP are provided. These methods involve making 3-HP as described above, and then additionally contacting 3-HP with a fifth polypeptide having lipase activity to form an ester.

The invention also provides methods for making polymerized acrylate. These methods involve culturing a cell that has both CoA synthetase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity, and poly hydroxyacid synthase activity such that polymerized acrylate is made. Accordingly, the invention also provides methods of making polymerized acrylate wherein lactate is contacted with a first polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity to form lactyl-CoA, then contacting lactyl-CoA with a second polypeptide having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity to form acrylyl-CoA, and then contacting acrylyl-CoA with a third polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity to form polymerized acrylate.

The invention also provides methods of making an ester of acrylate. These methods involve culturing a cell that has CoA transferase activity, lipase activity, and lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity under conditions that allow the cell to produce an ester.

In another embodiment, the invention provides methods for making an ester of acrylate, wherein acrylyl-CoA is formed as described above, and then acrylyl-CoA is contacted with a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity to form acrylate, and acrylate is contacted with a polypeptide having lipase activity to form the ester.

The invention also provides methods for making 3-HP. These methods involve culturing a cell containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid that encodes at least one polypeptide such that 3-HP is produced from acetyl-CoA or malonyl-CoA.

Alternative embodiments provide methods of making 3-HP, wherein acetyl-CoA is contacted with a first polypeptide having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity to form malonyl-CoA, and malonyl-CoA is contacted with a second polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity to form 3-HP.

In other embodiments, malonyl-CoA can be contacted with a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity so that 3-HP can be made.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for making 3-HP that uses a β-alanine intermediate. This method can be performed by contacting β-alanine CoA with a first polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (such as a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 160 or 161) to form acrylyl-CoA, contacting acrylyl-CoA with a second polypeptide having 3-HP-CoA dehydratase activity to form 3-HP-CoA, and contacting 3-HP-CoA with a third polypeptide having glutamate dehydrogenase activity to make 3-HP.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a diagram of a pathway for making 3-HP.

FIG. 2 is a diagram of a pathway for making polymerized 3-HP.

FIG. 3 is a diagram of a pathway for making esters of 3-HP.

FIG. 4 is a diagram of a pathway for making polymerized acrylic acid.

FIG. 5 is a diagram of a pathway for making esters of acrylate.

FIG. 6 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (SEQ ID NO:1).

FIG. 7 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (SEQ ID NO:2).

FIGS. 8A-D show an alignment of the nucleic acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:1, 3, 4, and 5.

FIGS. 9A-B show an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:2, 6, 7, and 8.

FIG. 10 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having E1 activator activity (SEQ ID NO:9).

FIG. 11 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having E1 activator activity (SEQ ID NO:10).

FIGS. 12A-B show an alignment of the nucleic acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:9, 11, 12, and 13.

FIG. 13 is an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:10, 14, 15, and 16.

FIG. 14 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an E2 α subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:17).

FIG. 15 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of an E2 α subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:18).

FIGS. 16A-C shows an alignment of the nucleic acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:17, 19, 20, and 21.

FIG. 17 is an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:18, 22, 23, and 24.

FIG. 18 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an E2 β subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:25). The “G” at position 443 can be an “A”; and the “A” at position 571 can be a “G”.

FIG. 19 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of an E2 β subunit of an enzyme having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:26).

FIGS. 20A-C show an alignment of the nucleic acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:25, 27, 28, and 29.

FIG. 21 is an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:26, 30, 31, and 32.

FIGS. 22A-B show a listing of a nucleic acid sequence of genomic DNA from Megasphaera elsdenii (SEQ ID NO:33).

FIG. 23 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide from Megasphaera elsdenii (SEQ ID NO:34).

FIG. 24 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide from Megasphaera elsdenii (SEQ ID NO:35).

FIG. 25 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity (SEQ ID NO:36).

FIG. 26 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having enzymatic activity (SEQ ID NO:37).

FIGS. 27A-B show a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that contains non-coding as well as coding sequence of a polypeptide having CoA synthase, dehydratase, and dehydrogenase activity (SEQ ID NO:38). The start site for the coding sequence is at position 480, a ribosome binding site is at position 466-473, and the stop codon is at position 5946.

FIG. 28 is a listing of an amino acid sequence from a polypeptide having CoA synthase, dehydratase, and dehydrogenase activity (SEQ ID NO:39).

FIG. 29 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:40).

FIG. 30 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:41).

FIG. 31 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that contains non-coding as well as coding sequence of a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (SEQ ID NO:42).

FIGS. 32A-B show an alignment of the nucleic acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:40, 43, 44, and 45.

FIG. 33 is an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:41, 46, 47, and 48.

FIG. 34 is a diagram of the construction of a synthetic operon (pTDH) that encodes for polypeptides having CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (E1, E2 α, and E2 β), and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (3-HP-CoA dehydratase).

FIGS. 35A and B is a diagram of the construction of a synthetic operon (pHTD) that encodes for polypeptides having CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (E1, E2 α, and E2 β), and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (3-HP-CoA dehydratase).

FIGS. 36A and B is a diagram of the construction of a synthetic operon (pEIITHrEI) that encodes for polypeptides having CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (E1, E2 α, and E2 β), and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (3-HP-CoA dehydratase).

FIGS. 37A and B is a diagram of the construction of a synthetic operon (pEIITHEI) that encodes for polypeptides having CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (E1, E2 α, and E2 β), and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (3-HP-CoA dehydratase).

FIGS. 38A and B is a diagram of the construction of two plasmids, pEIITH and pPROEI. The pEIITH plasmid encodes polypeptides having CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (E2 α and E2 β), and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (3-HP-CoA dehydratase), and the pPROEI plasmid encodes a polypeptide having E1 activator activity.

FIGS. 39A-B show a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having CoA synthase, dehydratase, and dehydrogenase activity (SEQ ID NO:129).

FIGS. 40A-D show an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:39, 130, and 131. The uppercase amino acid residues represent positions where that amino acid residue is present in two or more sequences.

FIGS. 41A-D show an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs:39, 132, and 133. The uppercase amino acid residues represent positions where that amino acid residue is present in two or more sequences.

FIGS. 42A-D show an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 39, 134, and 135. The uppercase amino acid residues represent positions where that amino acid residue is present in two or more sequences.

FIG. 43 is a diagram of several pathways for making organic compounds using the multifunctional OS17 enzyme.

FIG. 44 is a diagram of a pathway for making 3-HP via acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA.

FIG. 45 is a diagram of pMSD8, pET30a/acc1, pFN476, and PET286 constructs.

FIGS. 46A-F show a total ion chromatogram and five mass spectrums of Coenzyme A thioesters. (A) is total ion chromatogram illustrating the separation of Coenzyme A and four CoA-organic thioesters: 1=Coenzyme A, 2=lactyl-CoA, 3=acetyl-CoA, 4=acrylyl-CoA, 5=propionyl-CoA. (B) is a mass spectrum of Coenzyme A. (C) is a mass spectrum of lactyl-CoA. (D) is a mass spectrum of acetyl-CoA. (E) is a mass spectrum of acrylyl-CoA. (F) is a mass spectrum of propionyl-CoA.

FIGS. 47A-B show ion chromatograms and mass spectrums. (A) is a total ion chromatogram of a mixture of lactyl-CoA and 3-HP-CoA. The insert is the mass spectrum recorded under peak 1. (B) is a total ion chromatogram of lactyl-CoA. The insert is the mass spectrum recorded under peak 2. In each panel, peak 1 is 3-HP-CoA, and peak 2 is lactyl-CoA. The peak labeled with an asterisk was confirmed not to be a CoA ester.

FIGS. 48A-B show ion chromatograms and mass spectrums. (A) is a total ion chromatogram of CoA esters derived from a broth produced by E. coli transfected with pEIITHrEI. The insert is the mass spectrum recorded under peak 1. (B) is a total ion chromatogram of CoA esters derived from a broth produced by control E. coli not transfected with pEIITHrEI. The insert is the mass spectrum recorded under peak 2. In each panel, peak 1 is 3-HP-CoA, and peak 2 is lactyl-CoA. The peaks labeled with an asterisk were confirmed not to be a CoA ester.

FIGS. 49A-B show a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity (SEQ ID NO: 140).

FIG. 50 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity (SEQ ID NO:141).

FIG. 51 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a portion of a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity (SEQ ID NO:142).

FIGS. 52A-D show is an alignment of the amino acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, and 147.

FIGS. 53A-J show an alignment of the nucleic acid sequences set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 140, 148, 149, 150, 151, and 152.

FIG. 54 is a diagram of a pathway for making 3-HP via a β-alanine intermediate.

FIG. 55 is a diagram of a pathway for making 3-HP via a β-alanine intermediate.

FIG. 56 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (SEQ ID NO:160).

FIG. 57 is a listing of an amino acid sequence of a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (SEQ ID NO:161).

FIG. 58 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (SEQ ID NO:162).

FIG. 59 is a listing of a nucleic acid sequence that can encode a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (SEQ ID NO:163).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

I. Terms

Nucleic acid: The term “nucleic acid” as used herein encompasses both RNA and DNA including, without limitation, cDNA, genomic DNA, and synthetic (e.g., chemically synthesized) DNA. The nucleic acid can be double-stranded or single-stranded. Where single-stranded, the nucleic acid can be the sense strand or the antisense strand. In addition, nucleic acid can be circular or linear.

Isolated: The term “isolated” as used herein with reference to nucleic acid refers to a naturally-occurring nucleic acid that is not immediately contiguous with both of the sequences with which it is immediately contiguous (one on the 5′ end and one on the 3′ end) in the naturally-occurring genome of the organism from which it is derived. For example, an isolated nucleic acid can be, without limitation, a recombinant DNA molecule of any length, provided one of the nucleic acid sequences normally found immediately flanking that recombinant DNA molecule in a naturally-occurring genome is removed or absent. Thus, an isolated nucleic acid includes, without limitation, a recombinant DNA that exists as a separate molecule (e.g., a cDNA or a genomic DNA fragment produced by PCR or restriction endonuclease treatment) independent of other sequences as well as recombinant DNA that is incorporated into a vector, an autonomously replicating plasmid, a virus (e.g., a retrovirus, adenovirus, or herpes virus), or into the genomic DNA of a prokaryote or eukaryote. In addition, an isolated nucleic acid can include a recombinant DNA molecule that is part of a hybrid or fusion nucleic acid sequence.

The term “isolated” as used herein with reference to nucleic acid also includes any non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid since non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid sequences are not found in nature and do not have immediately contiguous sequences in a naturally-occurring genome. For example, non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid such as an engineered nucleic acid is considered to be isolated nucleic acid. Engineered nucleic acid can be made using common molecular cloning or chemical nucleic acid synthesis techniques. Isolated non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid can be independent of other sequences, or incorporated into a vector, an autonomously replicating plasmid, a virus (e.g., a retrovirus, adenovirus, or herpes virus), or the genomic DNA of a prokaryote or eukaryote. In addition, a non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid can include a nucleic acid molecule that is part of a hybrid or fusion nucleic acid sequence.

It will be apparent to those of skill in the art that a nucleic acid existing among hundreds to millions of other nucleic acid molecules within, for example, cDNA or genomic libraries, or gel slices containing a genomic DNA restriction digest is not to be considered an isolated nucleic acid.

Exogenous: The term “exogenous” as used herein with reference to nucleic acid and a particular cell refers to any nucleic acid that does not originate from that particular cell as found in nature. Thus, non-naturally-occurring nucleic acid is considered to be exogenous to a cell once introduced into the cell. Nucleic acid that is naturally-occurring also can be exogenous to a particular cell. For example, an entire chromosome isolated from a cell of person X is an exogenous nucleic acid with respect to a cell of person Y once that chromosome is introduced into Y's cell.

Hybridization: The term “hybridization” as used herein refers to a method of testing for complementarity in the nucleotide sequence of two nucleic acid molecules, based on the ability of complementary single-stranded DNA and/or RNA to form a duplex molecule. Nucleic acid hybridization techniques can be used to obtain an isolated nucleic acid within the scope of the invention. Briefly, any nucleic acid having some homology to a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163 can be used as a probe to identify a similar nucleic acid by hybridization under conditions of moderate to high stringency. Once identified, the nucleic acid then can be purified, sequenced, and analyzed to determine whether it is within the scope of the invention as described herein.

Hybridization can be done by Southern or Northern analysis to identify a DNA or RNA sequence, respectively, that hybridizes to a probe. The probe can be labeled with a biotin, digoxygenin, an enzyme, or a radioisotope such as ³²P. The DNA or RNA to be analyzed can be electrophoretically separated on an agarose or polyacrylamide gel, transferred to nitrocellulose, nylon, or other suitable membrane, and hybridized with the probe using standard techniques well known in the art such as those described in sections 7.39-7.52 of Sambrook et al., (1989) Molecular Cloning, second edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Plainview, N.Y. Typically, a probe is at least about 20 nucleotides in length. For example, a probe corresponding to a 20 nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, or 142 can be used to identify an identical or similar nucleic acid. In addition, probes longer or shorter than 20 nucleotides can be used.

The invention also provides isolated nucleic acid sequences that are at least about 12 bases in length (e.g., at least about 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 bases in length) and hybridize, under hybridization conditions, to the sense or antisense strand of a nucleic acid having the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. The hybridization conditions can be moderately or highly stringent hybridization conditions.

For the purpose of this invention, moderately stringent hybridization conditions mean the hybridization is performed at about 42° C. in a hybridization solution containing 25 mM KPO₄ (pH 7.4), 5×SSC, 5×Denhart's solution, 50 μg/mL denatured, sonicated salmon sperm DNA, 50% formamide, 10% Dextran sulfate, and 1-15 ng/mL probe (about 5×10⁷ cpm/μg), while the washes are performed at about 50° C. with a wash solution containing 2×SSC and 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate.

Highly stringent hybridization conditions mean the hybridization is performed at about 42° C. in a hybridization solution containing 25 mM KPO₄ (pH 7.4), 5×SSC, 5× Denhart's solution, 50 μg/mL denatured, sonicated salmon sperm DNA, 50% formamide, 10% Dextran sulfate, and 1-15 ng/mL probe (about 5×10⁷ cpm/m), while the washes are performed at about 65° C. with a wash solution containing 0.2×SSC and 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate.

Purified: The term “purified” as used herein does not require absolute purity; rather, it is intended as a relative term. Thus, for example, a purified polypeptide or nucleic acid preparation can be one in which the subject polypeptide or nucleic acid, respectively, is at a higher concentration than the polypeptide or nucleic acid would be in its natural environment within an organism. For example, a polypeptide preparation can be considered purified if the polypeptide content in the preparation represents at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 92%, 95%, 98%, or 99% of the total protein content of the preparation.

Transformed: A “transformed” cell is a cell into which a nucleic acid molecule has been introduced by, for example, molecular biology techniques. As used herein, the term “transformation” encompasses all techniques by which a nucleic acid molecule might be introduced into such a cell including, without limitation, transfection with a viral vector, conjugation, transformation with a plasmid vector, and introduction of naked DNA by electroporation, lipofection, and particle gun acceleration.

Recombinant: A “recombinant” nucleic acid is one having (1) a sequence that is not naturally occurring in the organism in which it is expressed or (2) a sequence made by an artificial combination of two otherwise-separated, shorter sequences. This artificial combination is often accomplished by chemical synthesis or, more commonly, by the artificial manipulation of isolated segments of nucleic acids, e.g., by genetic engineering techniques. “Recombinant” is also used to describe nucleic acid molecules that have been artificially manipulated, but contain the same regulatory sequences and coding regions that are found in the organism from which the nucleic acid was isolated.

Specific binding agent: A “specific binding agent” is an agent that is capable of specifically binding to any of the polypeptide described herein, and can include polyclonal antibodies, monoclonal antibodies (including humanized monoclonal antibodies), and fragments of monoclonal antibodies such as Fab, F(ab′)₂, and Fv fragments as well as any other agent capable of specifically binding to an epitope of such polypeptides.

Antibodies to the polypeptides provided herein (or fragments thereof) can be used to purify or identify such polypeptides. The amino acid and nucleic acid sequences provided herein allow for the production of specific antibody-based binding agents that recognize the polypeptides described herein.

Monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies can be produced to the polypeptides, portions of the polypeptides, or variants thereof. Optimally, antibodies raised against one or more epitopes on a polypeptide antigen will specifically detect that polypeptide. That is, antibodies raised against one particular polypeptide would recognize and bind that particular polypeptide, and would not substantially recognize or bind to other polypeptides. The determination that an antibody specifically binds to a particular polypeptide is made by any one of a number of standard immunoassay methods; for instance, Western blotting (See, e.g., Sambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989).

To determine that a given antibody preparation (such as a preparation produced in a mouse against a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2) specifically detects the appropriate polypeptide (e.g., a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2) by Western blotting, total cellular protein can be extracted from cells and separated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The separated total cellular protein can then be transferred to a membrane (e.g., nitrocellulose), and the antibody preparation incubated with the membrane. After washing the membrane to remove non-specifically bound antibodies, the presence of specifically bound antibodies can be detected using an appropriate secondary antibody (e.g., an anti-mouse antibody) conjugated to an enzyme such as alkaline phosphatase since application of 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl phosphate/nitro blue tetrazolium results in the production of a densely blue-colored compound by immuno-localized alkaline phosphatase.

Substantially pure polypeptides suitable for use as an immunogen can be obtained from transfected cells, transformed cells, or wild-type cells. Polypeptide concentrations in the final preparation can be adjusted, for example, by concentration on an Amicon filter device, to the level of a few micrograms per milliliter. In addition, polypeptides ranging in size from full-length polypeptides to polypeptides having as few as nine amino acid residues can be utilized as immunogens. Such polypeptides can be produced in cell culture, can be chemically synthesized using standard methods, or can be obtained by cleaving large polypeptides into smaller polypeptides that can be purified. Polypeptides having as few as nine amino acid residues in length can be immunogenic when presented to an immune system in the context of a Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecule such as an MHC class I or MHC class II molecule. Accordingly, polypeptides having at least 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 900, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, 1250, 1300, 1350, or more consecutive amino acid residues of any amino acid sequence disclosed herein can be used as immunogens for producing antibodies.

Monoclonal antibodies to any of the polypeptides disclosed herein can be prepared from murine hybridomas according to the classic method of Kohler & Milstein (Nature 256:495 (1975)) or a derivative method thereof.

Polyclonal antiserum containing antibodies to the heterogeneous epitopes of any polypeptide disclosed herein can be prepared by immunizing suitable animals with the polypeptide (or fragment thereof), which can be unmodified or modified to enhance immunogenicity. An effective immunization protocol for rabbits can be found in Vaitukaitis et al. (J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 33:988-991 (1971)).

Antibody fragments can be used in place of whole antibodies and can be readily expressed in prokaryotic host cells. Methods of making and using immunologically effective portions of monoclonal antibodies, also referred to as “antibody fragments,” are well known and include those described in Better & Horowitz (Methods Enzymol. 178:476-496 (1989)), Glockshuber et al. (Biochemistry 29:1362-1367 (1990), U.S. Pat. No. 5,648,237 (“Expression of Functional Antibody Fragments”), U.S. Pat. No. 4,946,778 (“Single Polypeptide Chain Binding Molecules”), U.S. Pat. No. 5,455,030 (“Immunotherapy Using Single Chain Polypeptide Binding Molecules”), and references cited therein.

Operably linked: A first nucleic acid sequence is “operably linked” with a second nucleic acid sequence whenever the first nucleic acid sequence is placed in a functional relationship with the second nucleic acid sequence. For instance, a promoter is operably linked to a coding sequence if the promoter affects the transcription of the coding sequence. Generally, operably linked DNA sequences are contiguous and, where necessary to join two polypeptide-coding regions, in the same reading frame.

Probes and primers: Nucleic acid probes and primers can be prepared readily based on the amino acid sequences and nucleic acid sequences provided herein. A “probe” includes an isolated nucleic acid containing a detectable label or reporter molecule. Typical labels include radioactive isotopes, ligands, chemiluminescent agents, and enzymes. Methods for labeling and guidance in the choice of labels appropriate for various purposes are discussed in, for example, Sambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989, and Ausubel et al. (ed.) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing and Wiley-Interscience, New York (with periodic updates), 1987.

“Primers” are typically nucleic acid molecules having ten or more nucleotides (e.g., nucleic acid molecules having between about 10 nucleotides and about 100 nucleotides). A primer can be annealed to a complementary target nucleic acid strand by nucleic acid hybridization to form a hybrid between the primer and the target nucleic acid strand, and then extended along the target nucleic acid strand by, for example, a DNA polymerase enzyme. Primer pairs can be used for amplification of a nucleic acid sequence, for example, by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or other nucleic-acid amplification methods known in the art.

Methods for preparing and using probes and primers are described, for example, in references such as Sambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989; Ausubel et al. (ed.), Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing and Wiley-Interscience, New York (with periodic updates), 1987; and Innis et al., PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press: San Diego, 1990. PCR primer pairs can be derived from a known sequence, for example, by using computer programs intended for that purpose such as Primer (Version 0.5, .COPYRGT. 1991, Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, Mass.). One of skill in the art will appreciate that the specificity of a particular probe or primer increases with the length, but that a probe or primer can range in size from a full-length sequence to sequences as short as five consecutive nucleotides. Thus, for example, a primer of 20 consecutive nucleotides can anneal to a target with a higher specificity than a corresponding primer of only 15 nucleotides. Thus, in order to obtain greater specificity, probes and primers can be selected that comprise, for example, 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1050, 1100, 1150, 1200, 1250, 1300, 1350, 1400, 1450, 1500, 1550, 1600, 1650, 1700, 1750, 1800, 1850, 1900, 2000, 2050, 2100, 2150, 2200, 2250, 2300, 2350, 2400, 2450, 2500, 2550, 2600, 2650, 2700, 2750, 2800, 2850, 2900, 3000, 3050, 3100, 3150, 3200, 3250, 3300, 3350, 3400, 3450, 3500, 3550, 3600, 3650, 3700, 3750, 3800, 3850, 3900, 4000, 4050, 4100, 4150, 4200, 4250, 4300, 4350, 4400, 4450, 4500, 4550, 4600, 4650, 4700, 4750, 4800, 4850, 4900, 5000, 5050, 5100, 5150, 5200, 5250, 5300, 5350, 5400, 5450, or more consecutive nucleotides.

Percent sequence identity: The “percent sequence identity” between a particular nucleic acid or amino acid sequence and a sequence referenced by a particular sequence identification number is determined as follows. First, a nucleic acid or amino acid sequence is compared to the sequence set forth in a particular sequence identification number using the BLAST 2 Sequences (B12seq) program from the stand-alone version of BLASTZ containing BLASTN version 2.0.14 and BLASTP version 2.0.14. This stand-alone version of BLASTZ can be obtained from Fish & Richardson's web site (www.fr.com) or the United States government's National Center for Biotechnology Information web site (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). Instructions explaining how to use the B12seq program can be found in the readme file accompanying BLASTZ. B12seq performs a comparison between two sequences using either the BLASTN or BLASTP algorithm. BLASTN is used to compare nucleic acid sequences, while BLASTP is used to compare amino acid sequences. To compare two nucleic acid sequences, the options are set as follows: -i is set to a file containing the first nucleic acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq1.txt); -j is set to a file containing the second nucleic acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq2.txt); -p is set to blastn; -o is set to any desired file name (e.g., C:\output.txt); -q is set to -1; -r is set to 2; and all other options are left at their default setting. For example, the following command can be used to generate an output file containing a comparison between two sequences: C:\B12seq c:\seq1.txt -j c:\seq2.txt -p blastn -o c:\output.txt -q -1 -r 2. To compare two amino acid sequences, the options of B12seq are set as follows: -i is set to a file containing the first amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq1.txt); -j is set to a file containing the second amino acid sequence to be compared (e.g., C:\seq2.txt); -p is set to blastp; -o is set to any desired file name (e.g., C:\output.txt); and all other options are left at their default setting. For example, the following command can be used to generate an output file containing a comparison between two amino acid sequences: C:\B12seq c:\seq1.txt -j c:\seq2.txt -p blastp -o c:\output.txt. If the two compared sequences share homology, then the designated output file will present those regions of homology as aligned sequences. If the two compared sequences do not share homology, then the designated output file will not present aligned sequences.

Once aligned, the number of matches is determined by counting the number of positions where an identical nucleotide or amino acid residue is presented in both sequences. The percent sequence identity is determined by dividing the number of matches either by the length of the sequence set forth in the identified sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NO:1), or by an articulated length (e.g., 100 consecutive nucleotides or amino acid residues from a sequence set forth in an identified sequence), followed by multiplying the resulting value by 100. For example, a nucleic acid sequence that has 1166 matches when aligned with the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 is 75.0 percent identical to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 (i.e., 1166±1554*100=75.0). It is noted that the percent sequence identity value is rounded to the nearest tenth. For example, 75.11, 75.12, 75.13, and 75.14 is rounded down to 75.1, while 75.15, 75.16, 75.17, 75.18, and 75.19 is rounded up to 75.2. It is also noted that the length value will always be an integer. In another example, a target sequence containing a 20-nucleotide region that aligns with 20 consecutive nucleotides from an identified sequence as follows contains a region that shares 75 percent sequence identity to that identified sequence (i.e., 15±20*100=75).

Conservative substitution: The term “conservative substitution” as used herein refers to any of the amino acid substitutions set forth in Table 1. Typically, conservative substitutions have little to no impact on the activity of a polypeptide. A polypeptide can be produced to contain one or more conservative substitutions by manipulating the nucleotide sequence that encodes that polypeptide using, for example, standard procedures such as site-directed mutagenesis or PCR.

TABLE 1 Original Conservative Residue Substitution(s) Ala ser Arg lys Asn gln; his Asp glu Cys ser Gln asn Glu asp Gly pro His asn; gln Ile leu; val Leu ile; val Lys arg; gln; glu Met leu; ile Phe met; leu; tyr Ser thr Thr ser Trp tyr Tyr trp; phe Val ile; leu II. Metabolic Pathways

The invention provides methods and materials related to producing 3-HP as well as other organic compounds (e.g., 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, and esters of 3-HP). Specifically, the invention provides isolated nucleic acids, polypeptides, host cells, and methods and materials for producing 3-HP as well as other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, polymerized 3-HP, and esters of 3-HP.

Accordingly, the invention provides several metabolic pathways that can be used to produce organic compounds from PEP (FIGS. 1-5, 43-44, 54, and 55). As depicted in FIG. 1, lactate can be converted into lactyl-CoA by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (EC 2.8.3.1); the resulting lactyl-CoA can be converted into acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide (or multiple polypeptide complex such as an activated E2 α and E2 β complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity (EC 4.2.1.54); the resulting acrylyl-CoA can be converted into 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA (3-HP-CoA) by a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (EC 4.2.1.-); and the resulting 3-HP-CoA can be converted into 3-HP by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity, a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity (EC 3.1.2.-), or a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity (EC 3.1.2.4).

Polypeptides having CoA transferase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Megasphaera elsdenii, Clostridium propionicum, Clostridium kluyveri, and Escherichia coli. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity can be obtained from Megasphaera elsdenii as described in Example 1 and can have a sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1. In addition, polypeptides having CoA transferase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained as described herein. For example, the variations to SEQ ID NO: 1 provided herein can be used to encode a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity.

Polypeptides (or the polypeptides of a multiple polypeptide complex such as an activated E2 α and E2 β complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Megasphaera elsdenii and Clostridium propionicum. For example, nucleic acid encoding an E1 activator, an E2 α subunit, and an E2 β subunit that can form a multiple polypeptide complex having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity can be obtained from Megasphaera elsdenii as described in Example 2. The nucleic acid encoding the E1 activator can contain a sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 9; the nucleic acid encoding the E2 α subunit can contain a sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 17; and the nucleic acid encoding the E2 β subunit can contain a sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 25. In addition, polypeptides (or the polypeptides of a multiple polypeptide complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained as described herein. For example, the variations to SEQ ID NO: 9, 17, and 25 provided herein can be used to encode the polypeptides of a multiple polypeptide complex having CoA transferase activity.

Polypeptides having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Chloroflexus aurantiacus, Candida rugosa, Rhodosprillium rubrum, and Rhodobacter capsulates. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity can be obtained from Chloroflexus aurantiacus as described in Example 3 and can have a sequence as set forth in SEQ ID NO: 40. In addition, polypeptides having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained as described herein. For example, the variations to SEQ ID NO: 40 provided herein can be used to encode a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity.

Polypeptides having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Candida rugosa. Polypeptides having 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Pseudomonas fluorescens, rattus, and homo sapiens. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity can be obtained from homo sapiens and can have a sequence as set forth in GenBank® accession number U66669.

The term “polypeptide having enzymatic activity” as used herein refers to any polypeptide that catalyzes a chemical reaction of other substances without itself being destroyed or altered upon completion of the reaction. Typically, a polypeptide having enzymatic activity catalyzes the formation of one or more products from one or more substrates. Such polypeptides can have any type of enzymatic activity including, without limitation, the enzymatic activity or enzymatic activities associated with enzymes such as dehydratases/hydratases, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratases/hydratases, CoA transferases, lactyl-CoA dehydratases, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolases, 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolases, poly hydroxyacid synthases, CoA synthetases, malonyl-CoA reductases, β-alanine ammonia lyases, and lipases.

As depicted in FIG. 2, lactate can be converted into lactyl-CoA by a polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity (EC 6.2.1.-); the resulting lactyl-CoA can be converted into acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide (or multiple polypeptide complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; the resulting acrylyl-CoA can be converted into 3-HP-CoA by a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity; and the resulting 3-HP-CoA can be converted into polymerized 3-HP by a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity (EC 2.3.1.-). Polypeptides having CoA synthetase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Escherichia coli, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Saccharomyces cervisiae, and Salmonella enterica. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity can be obtained from Escherichia coli and can have a sequence as set forth in GenBank® accession number U00006. Polypeptides (or multiple polypeptide complexes) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained as provided herein. Polypeptides having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides also can be obtained as provided herein. Polypeptides having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Comamonas acidororans, Ralstonia eutropha, and Pseudomonas oleovorans. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity can be obtained from Rhodobacter sphaeroides and can have a sequence as set forth in GenBank® accession number X97200.

As depicted in FIG. 3, lactate can be converted into lactyl-CoA by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity; the resulting lactyl-CoA can be converted into acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide (or multiple polypeptide complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; the resulting acrylyl-CoA can be converted into 3-HP-CoA by a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity; the resulting 3-HP-CoA can be converted into 3-HP by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity, a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity, or a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutryl-CoA hydrolase activity; and the resulting 3-HP can be converted into an ester of 3-HP by a polypeptide having lipase activity (EC 3.1.1.-). Polypeptides having lipase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Candida rugosa, Candida tropicalis, and Candida albicans. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having lipase activity can be obtained from Candida rugosa and can have a sequence as set forth in GenBank® accession number A81171.

As depicted in FIG. 4, lactate can be converted into lactyl-CoA by a polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity; the resulting lactyl-CoA can be converted into acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide (or multiple polypeptide complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; and the resulting acrylyl-CoA can be converted into polymerized acrylate by a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity.

As depicted in FIG. 5, lactate can be converted into lactyl-CoA by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity; the resulting lactyl-CoA can be converted into acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide (or multiple polypeptide complex) having lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity; the resulting acrylyl-CoA can be converted into acrylate by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity; and the resulting acrylate can be converted into an ester of acrylate by a polypeptide having lipase activity.

As depicted in FIG. 44, acetyl-CoA can be converted into malonyl-CoA by a polypeptide having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity, and the resulting malonyl-CoA can be converted into 3-HP by a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity. Polypeptides having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Escherichia coli and Chloroflexus aurantiacus. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity can be obtained from Escherichia coli and can have a sequence as set forth in GenBank® accession number M96394 or U18997. Polypeptides having malonyl-CoA reductase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained from various species including, without limitation, Chloroflexus aurantiacus, Sulfolobus metacillus, and Acidianus brierleyi. For example, nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity can be obtained as described herein and can have a sequence similar to the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 140. In addition, polypeptides having malonyl-CoA reductase activity as well as nucleic acid encoding such polypeptides can be obtained as described herein. For example, the variations to SEQ ID NO: 140 provided herein can be used to encode a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity.

Polypeptides having malonyl-CoA reductase activity can use NADPH as a co-factor. For example, the polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 141 is a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity that uses NADPH as a co-factor when converting malonyl-CoA into 3-HP. Likewise, polypeptides having malonyl-CoA reductase activity can use NADH as a co-factor. Such polypeptides can be obtained by converting a polypeptide that has malonyl-CoA reductase activity and uses NADPH as a cofactor into a polypeptide that has malonyl-CoA reductase activity and uses NADH as a cofactor. Any method can be used to convert a polypeptide that uses NADPH as a cofactor into a polypeptide that uses NADH as a cofactor such as those described by others (Eppink et al., J. Mol. Biol., 292(1):87-96 (1999), Hall and Tomsett, Microbiology, 146 (Pt 6):1399-406 (2000), and Dohr et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 98(1):81-86 (2001)). For example, mutagenesis can be used to convert the polypeptide encoded by the nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 140 into a polypeptide that, when converting malonyl-CoA into 3-HP, uses NADH as a co-factor instead of NADPH.

As depicted in FIG. 43, propionate can be converted into propionyl-CoA by a polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity such as the polypeptide having the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 39; the resulting propionyl-CoA can be converted into acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide having dehydrogenase activity such as the polypeptide having the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 39; and the resulting acrylyl-CoA can be converted into (1) acrylate by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity or CoA hydrolase activity, (2) 3-HP-CoA by a polypeptide having 3-HP dehydratase activity (also referred to as acrylyl-CoA hydratase or simply hydratase) such as the polypeptide having the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:39, or (3) polymerized acrylate by a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity. The resulting acrylate can be converted into an ester of acrylate by a polypeptide having lipase activity. The resulting 3-HP-CoA can be converted into (1) 3-HP by a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity, a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA hydrolase activity (EC 3.1.2.-), or a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase activity (EC 3.1.2.4), or (2) polymerized 3-HP by a polypeptide having poly hydroxyacid synthase activity (EC 2.3.1.-).

As depicted in FIG. 54, PEP can be converted into β-alanine. β-alanine can be converted into β-alanyl-CoA through the use of a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity. β-alanyl-CoA can then be converted into acrylyl-CoA through the use of a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity. Acrylyl-CoA can then be converted into 3-HP-CoA through the use of a polypeptide having 3-HP-CoA dehydratase activity, and a polypeptide having glutamate dehydrogenase activity can be used to convert 3-HP-CoA into 3-HP.

As depicted in FIG. 55, 3-HP can be made from β-alanine by first contacting β-alanine with a polypeptide having 4,4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase activity to create malonate semialdehyde. The malonate semialdehyde can be converted into 3-HP with a polypeptide having 3-HP dehydrogenase activity or a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase activity.

III. Nucleic Acid Molecules and Polypeptides

The invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains the entire nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. In addition, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a portion of the nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a 15 nucleotide sequence identical to any 15 nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163 including, without limitation, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 1 and ending at nucleotide number 15, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 2 and ending at nucleotide number 16, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 3 and ending at nucleotide number 17, and so forth. It will be appreciated that the invention also provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleotide sequence that is greater than 15 nucleotides (e.g., 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or more nucleotides) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a 25 nucleotide sequence identical to any 25 nucleotide sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163 including, without limitation, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 1 and ending at nucleotide number 25, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 2 and ending at nucleotide number 26, the sequence starting at nucleotide number 3 and ending at nucleotide number 27, and so forth. Additional examples include, without limitation, isolated nucleic acids that contain a nucleotide sequence that is 50 or more nucleotides (e.g., 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, or more nucleotides) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. Such isolated nucleic acids can include, without limitation, those isolated nucleic acids containing a nucleic acid sequence represented in a single line of sequence depicted in FIG. 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 39, 49, or 51 since each line of sequence depicted in these figures, with the possible exception of the last line, provides a nucleotide sequence containing at least 50 bases.

In addition, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a variation of the nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid containing a nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163 that contains a single insertion, a single deletion, a single substitution, multiple insertions, multiple deletions, multiple substitutions, or any combination thereof (e.g., single deletion together with multiple insertions). Such isolated nucleic acid molecules can share at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163.

The invention provides multiple examples of isolated nucleic acid that contains a variation of a nucleic acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. For example, FIGS. 8A-D provide the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 aligned with three other nucleic acid sequences. Examples of variations of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 include, without limitation, any variation of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 provided in FIGS. 8A-D. Such variations are provided in FIGS. 8A-D in that a comparison of the nucleotide (or lack thereof) at a particular position of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 with the nucleotide (or lack thereof) at the same aligned position of any of the other three nucleic acid sequences depicted in FIGS. 8A-D (i.e., SEQ ID NOs:3, 4, and 5) provides a list of specific changes for the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1. For example, the “a” at position 49 of SEQ ID NO:1 can be substituted with an “c” as indicated in FIGS. 8A-D. As also indicated in FIGS. 8A-D, the “a” at position 590 of SEQ ID NO:1 can be substituted with a “atgg”; an “aaac” can be inserted before the “g” at position 393 of SEQ ID NO:1; or the “goo” at position 736 of SEQ ID NO:1 can be deleted. It will be appreciated that the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 can contain any number of variations as well as any combination of types of variations. For example, the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 can contain one variation provided in FIGS. 8A-D or more than one (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, or more) of the variations provided in FIGS. 8A-D. It is noted that the nucleic acid sequences provided by FIGS. 8A-D can encode polypeptides having CoA transferase activity. The invention also provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a variant of a portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1 as depicted in FIGS. 8A-D and described herein.

Likewise, FIGS. 12A-B provide variations of SEQ ID NO:9 and portions thereof; FIGS. 16A-C provide variations of SEQ ID NO:17 and portions thereof; FIGS. 20A-C provide variations of SEQ ID NO:25 and portions thereof; FIGS. 32A-B provide variations of SEQ ID NO:40 and portions thereof; and FIGS. 53A-J provide variations of SEQ ID NO:140.

The invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes the entire amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. In addition, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a portion of the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a 15 amino acid sequence identical to any 15 amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 including, without limitation, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 1 and ending at amino acid residue number 15, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 2 and ending at amino acid residue number 16, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 3 and ending at amino acid residue number 17, and so forth. It will be appreciated that the invention also provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence that is greater than 15 amino acid residues (e.g., 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a 25 amino acid sequence identical to any 25 amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 including, without limitation, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 1 and ending at amino acid residue number 25, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 2 and ending at amino acid residue number 26, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 3 and ending at amino acid residue number 27, and so forth. Additional examples include, without limitation, isolated nucleic acids that contain a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence that is 50 or more amino acid residues (e.g., 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. Such isolated nucleic acids can include, without limitation, those isolated nucleic acids containing a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence represented in a single line of sequence depicted in FIG. 7, 11, 15, 19, 24, 26, 28, 30, or 50 since each line of sequence depicted in these figures, with the possible exception of the last line, provides an amino acid sequence containing at least 50 residues.

In addition, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid that contains a nucleic acid sequence that encodes an amino acid sequence having a variation of the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, the invention provides isolated nucleic acid containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 that contains a single insertion, a single deletion, a single substitution, multiple insertions, multiple deletions, multiple substitutions, or any combination thereof (e.g., single deletion together with multiple insertions). Such isolated nucleic acid molecules can contain a nucleic acid sequence encoding an amino acid sequence that shares at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161.

The invention provides multiple examples of isolated nucleic acid containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding an amino acid sequence having a variation of an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, FIGS. 9A-B provide the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 aligned with three other amino acid sequences. Examples of variations of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 include, without limitation, any variation of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 provided in FIGS. 9A-B. Such variations are provided in FIGS. 9A-B in that a comparison of the amino acid residue (or lack thereof) at a particular position of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 with the amino acid residue (or lack thereof) at the same aligned position of any of the other three amino acid sequences of FIGS. 9A-B (i.e., SEQ ID NOs:6, 7, and 8) provides a list of specific changes for the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2. For example, the “k” at position 17 of SEQ ID NO:2 can be substituted with a “p” or “h” as indicated in FIGS. 9A-B. As also indicated in FIGS. 9A-B, the “v” at position 125 of SEQ ID NO:2 can be substituted with an “i” or “f”. It will be appreciated that the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 can contain any number of variations as well as any combination of types of variations. For example, the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 can contain one variation provided in FIGS. 9A-B or more than one (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, or more) of the variations provided in FIGS. 9A-B. It is noted that the amino acid sequences provided in FIGS. 9A-B can be polypeptides having CoA transferase activity.

The invention also provides isolated nucleic acid containing a nucleic acid sequence encoding an amino acid sequence that contains a variant of a portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 as depicted in FIGS. 9A-B and described herein.

Likewise, FIG. 13 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:10 and portions thereof;

FIG. 17 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:18 and portions thereof; FIG. 21 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:26 and portions thereof; FIG. 33 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:41 and portions thereof; FIGS. 40, 41, and 42 provide variations of SEQ ID NO:39; and FIGS. 52A-D provide variations of SEQ ID NO:141 and portions thereof.

It is noted that codon preferences and codon usage tables for a particular species can be used to engineer isolated nucleic acid molecules that take advantage of the codon usage preferences of that particular species. For example, the isolated nucleic acid provided herein can be designed to have codons that are preferentially used by a particular organism of interest.

The invention also provides isolated nucleic acid that is at least about 12 bases in length (e.g., at least about 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000, 3000, 4000, or 5000 bases in length) and hybridizes, under hybridization conditions, to the sense or antisense strand of a nucleic acid having the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:1, 9, 17, 25, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 129, 140, 142, 162, or 163. The hybridization conditions can be moderately or highly stringent hybridization conditions.

The invention provides polypeptides that contain the entire amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. In addition, the invention provides polypeptides that contain a portion of the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, the invention provides polypeptides that contain a 15 amino acid sequence identical to any 15 amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 including, without limitation, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 1 and ending at amino acid residue number 15, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 2 and ending at amino acid residue number 16, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 3 and ending at amino acid residue number 17, and so forth. It will be appreciated that the invention also provides polypeptides that contain an amino acid sequence that is greater than 15 amino acid residues (e.g., 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, the invention provides polypeptides that contain a 25 amino acid sequence identical to any 25 amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 including, without limitation, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 1 and ending at amino acid residue number 25, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 2 and ending at amino acid residue number 26, the sequence starting at amino acid residue number 3 and ending at amino acid residue number 27, and so forth. Additional examples include, without limitation, polypeptides that contain an amino acid sequence that is 50 or more amino acid residues (e.g., 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, or more amino acid residues) in length and identical to any portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. Such polypeptides can include, without limitation, those polypeptides containing a amino acid sequence represented in a single line of sequence depicted in FIG. 7, 11, 15, 19, 24, 26, 28, 30, or 50 since each line of sequence depicted in these figures, with the possible exception of the last line, provides an amino acid sequence containing at least 50 residues.

In addition, the invention provides polypeptides that an amino acid sequence having a variation of the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, the invention provides polypeptides containing an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 that contains a single insertion, a single deletion, a single substitution, multiple insertions, multiple deletions, multiple substitutions, or any combination thereof (e.g., single deletion together with multiple insertions). Such polypeptides can contain an amino acid sequence that shares at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161.

The invention provides multiple examples of polypeptides containing an amino acid sequence having a variation of an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161. For example, FIGS. 9A-B provides the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 aligned with three other amino acid sequences. Examples of variations of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 include, without limitation, any variation of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 provided in FIGS. 9A-B. Such variations are provided in FIGS. 9A-B in that a comparison of the amino acid residue (or lack thereof) at a particular position of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 with the amino acid residue (or lack thereof) at the same aligned position of any of the other three amino acid sequences of FIGS. 9A-B (i.e., SEQ ID NOs:6, 7, and 8) provides a list of specific changes for the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2.

For example, the “k” at position 17 of SEQ ID NO:2 can be substituted with a “p” or “h” as indicated in FIGS. 9A-B. As also indicated in FIGS. 9A-B, the “v” at position 125 of SEQ ID NO:2 can be substituted with an “i” or “f”. It will be appreciated that the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 can contain any number of variations as well as any combination of types of variations. For example, the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 can contain one variation provided in FIGS. 9A-B or more than one (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, 100, or more) of the variations provided in FIGS. 9A-B. It is noted that the amino acid sequences provided in FIGS. 9A-B can be polypeptides having CoA transferase activity.

The invention also provides polypeptides containing an amino acid sequence that contains a variant of a portion of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2 as depicted in FIGS. 9A-B and described herein.

Likewise, FIG. 13 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:10 and portions thereof; FIG. 17 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:18 and portions thereof; FIG. 21 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:26 and portions thereof; FIG. 33 provides variations of SEQ ID NO:41 and portions thereof, FIGS. 40, 41, and 42 provide variations of SEQ ID NO:39; and FIGS. 52A-D provide variations of SEQ ID NO:141 and portions thereof.

Polypeptides having a variant amino acid sequence can retain enzymatic activity. Such polypeptides can be produced by manipulating the nucleotide sequence encoding a polypeptide using standard procedures such as site-directed mutagenesis or PCR. One type of modification includes the substitution of one or more amino acid residues for amino acid residues having a similar biochemical property. For example, a polypeptide can have an amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2, 10, 18, 26, 35, 37, 39, 41, 141, 160, or 161 with one or more conservative substitutions.

More substantial changes can be obtained by selecting substitutions that are less conservative than those in Table 1, i.e., selecting residues that differ more significantly in their effect on maintaining: (a) the structure of the polypeptide backbone in the area of the substitution, for example, as a sheet or helical conformation; (b) the charge or hydrophobicity of the polypeptide at the target site; or (c) the bulk of the side chain. The substitutions that in general are expected to produce the greatest changes in polypeptide function are those in which: (a) a hydrophilic residue, e.g., serine or threonine, is substituted for (or by) a hydrophobic residue, e.g., leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, valine or alanine; (b) a cysteine or proline is substituted for (or by) any other residue; (c) a residue having an electropositive side chain, e.g., lysine, arginine, or histidine, is substituted for (or by) an electronegative residue, e.g., glutamic acid or aspartic acid; or (d) a residue having a bulky side chain, e.g., phenylalanine, is substituted for (or by) one not having a side chain, e.g., glycine. The effects of these amino acid substitutions (or other deletions or additions) can be assessed for polypeptides having enzymatic activity by analyzing the ability of the polypeptide to catalyze the conversion of the same substrate as the related native polypeptide to the same product as the related native polypeptide. Accordingly, polypeptides having 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 or less conservative substitutions are provided by the invention.

Polypeptides and nucleic acid encoding polypeptide can be produced by standard DNA mutagenesis techniques, for example, M13 primer mutagenesis. Details of these techniques are provided in Sambrook et al. (ed.), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring, Harbor, N.Y., 1989, Ch. 15. Nucleic acid molecules can contain changes of a coding region to fit the codon usage bias of the particular organism into which the molecule is to be introduced.

Alternatively, the coding region can be altered by taking advantage of the degeneracy of the genetic code to alter the coding sequence in such a way that, while the nucleic acid sequence is substantially altered, it nevertheless encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence identical or substantially similar to the native amino acid sequence. For example, the ninth amino acid residue of the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2 is alanine, which is encoded in the open reading frame by the nucleotide codon triplet GCT. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, three other nucleotide codon triplets—GCA, GCC, and GCG—also code for alanine. Thus, the nucleic acid sequence of the open reading frame can be changed at this position to any of these three codons without affecting the amino acid sequence of the encoded polypeptide or the characteristics of the polypeptide. Based upon the degeneracy of the genetic code, nucleic acid variants can be derived from a nucleic acid sequence disclosed herein using a standard DNA mutagenesis techniques as described herein, or by synthesis of nucleic acid sequences. Thus, this invention also encompasses nucleic acid molecules that encode the same polypeptide but vary in nucleic acid sequence by virtue of the degeneracy of the genetic code.

IV. Methods of Making 3-HP and Other Organic Acids

Each step provided in the pathways depicted in FIGS. 1-5, 43-44, 54, and 55 can be performed within a cell (in vivo) or outside a cell (in vitro, e.g., in a container or column). Additionally, the organic acid products can be generated through a combination of in vivo synthesis and in vitro synthesis. Moreover, the in vitro synthesis step, or steps, can be via chemical reaction or enzymatic reaction.

For example, a microorganism provided herein can be used to perform the steps provided in FIG. 1, or an extract containing polypeptides having the indicated enzymatic activities can be used to perform the steps provided in FIG. 1. In addition, chemical treatments can be used to perform the conversions provided in FIGS. 1-5, 43-44, 54, and 55. For example, acrylyl-CoA can be converted into acrylate by hydrolysis. Other chemical treatments include, without limitation, trans esterification to convert acrylate into an acrylate ester.

Carbon sources suitable as starting points for bioconversion include carbohydrates and synthetic intermediates. Examples of carbohydrates which cells are capable of metabolizing to pyruvate include sugars such as dextrose, triglycerides, and fatty acids.

Additionally, intermediate chemical products can be starting points. For example, acetic acid and carbon dioxide can be introduced into a fermentation broth. Acetyl-CoA, malonyl-CoA, and 3-HP can be sequentially produced using a polypeptide having CoA synthase activity, a polypeptide having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity, and a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity. Other useful intermediate chemical starting points can include propionic acid, acrylic acid, lactic acid, pyruvic acid, and β-alanine.

A. Expression of Polypeptides

The polypeptides described herein can be produced individually in a host cell or in combination in a host cell. Moreover, the polypeptides having a particular enzymatic activity can be a polypeptide that is either naturally-occurring or non-naturally-occurring. A naturally-occurring polypeptide is any polypeptide having an amino acid sequence as found in nature, including wild-type and polymorphic polypeptides. Such naturally-occurring polypeptides can be obtained from any species including, without limitation, animal (e.g., mammalian), plant, fungal, and bacterial species. A non-naturally-occurring polypeptide is any polypeptide having an amino acid sequence that is not found in nature. Thus, a non-naturally-occurring polypeptide can be a mutated version of a naturally-occurring polypeptide, or an engineered polypeptide. For example, a non-naturally-occurring polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity can be a mutated version of a naturally-occurring polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity that retains at least some 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. A polypeptide can be mutated by, for example, sequence additions, deletions, substitutions, or combinations thereof.

The invention provides genetically modified cells that can be used to perform one or more steps of the steps in the metabolic pathways described herein or the genetically modified cells can be used to produce the disclosed polypeptides for subsequent use in vitro. For example, an individual microorganism can contain exogenous nucleic acid such that each of the polypeptides necessary to perform the steps depicted in FIG. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 43, 44, 54, or 55 are expressed. It is important to note that such cells can contain any number of exogenous nucleic acid molecules. For example, a particular cell can contain six exogenous nucleic acid molecules with each one encoding one of the six polypeptides necessary to convert lactate into 3-HP as depicted in FIG. 1, or a particular cell can endogenously produce polypeptides necessary to convert lactate into acrylyl-CoA while containing exogenous nucleic acid that encodes polypeptides necessary to convert acrylyl-CoA into 3-HP.

In addition, a single exogenous nucleic acid molecule can encode one or more than one polypeptide. For example, a single exogenous nucleic acid molecule can contain sequences that encode three different polypeptides. Further, the cells described herein can contain a single copy, or multiple copies (e.g., about 5, 10, 20, 35, 50, 75, 100 or 150 copies), of a particular exogenous nucleic acid molecule. For example, a particular cell can contain about 50 copies of the constructs depicted in FIG. 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, or 45. Again, the cells described herein can contain more than one particular exogenous nucleic acid molecule. For example, a particular cell can contain about 50 copies of exogenous nucleic acid molecule X as well as about 75 copies of exogenous nucleic acid molecule Y.

In another embodiment, a cell within the scope of the invention can contain an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. Such cells can have any level of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. For example, a cell containing an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity can have 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity with a specific activity greater than about 1 mg 3-HP-CoA formed per gram dry cell weight per hour (e.g., greater than about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, or more mg 3-HP-CoA formed per gram dry cell weight per hour). Alternatively, a cell can have 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity such that a cell extract from 1×10⁶ cells has a specific activity greater than about 1 μg 3-HP-CoA formed per mg total protein per 10 minutes (e.g., greater than about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 125, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 500, or more μg 3-HP-CoA formed per mg total protein per 10 minutes).

A nucleic acid molecule encoding a polypeptide having enzymatic activity can be identified and obtained using any method such as those described herein. For example, nucleic acid molecules that encode a polypeptide having enzymatic activity can be identified and obtained using common molecular cloning or chemical nucleic acid synthesis procedures and techniques, including PCR. In addition, standard nucleic acid sequencing techniques and software programs that translate nucleic acid sequences into amino acid sequences based on the genetic code can be used to determine whether or not a particular nucleic acid has any sequence homology with known enzymatic polypeptides. Sequence alignment software such as MEGALIGN® (DNASTAR, Madison, Wis., 1997) can be used to compare various sequences. In addition, nucleic acid molecules encoding known enzymatic polypeptides can be mutated using common molecular cloning techniques (e.g., site-directed mutagenesis). Possible mutations include, without limitation, deletions, insertions, and base substitutions, as well as combinations of deletions, insertions, and base substitutions. Further, nucleic acid and amino acid databases (e.g., GenBank®) can be used to identify a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity. Briefly, any amino acid sequence having some homology to a polypeptide having enzymatic activity, or any nucleic acid sequence having some homology to a sequence encoding a polypeptide having enzymatic activity can be used as a query to search GenBank®. The identified polypeptides then can be analyzed to determine whether or not they exhibit enzymatic activity.

In addition, nucleic acid hybridization techniques can be used to identify and obtain a nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity. Briefly, any nucleic acid molecule that encodes a known enzymatic polypeptide, or fragment thereof, can be used as a probe to identify a similar nucleic acid molecules by hybridization under conditions of moderate to high stringency. Such similar nucleic acid molecules then can be isolated, sequenced, and analyzed to determine whether the encoded polypeptide has enzymatic activity.

Expression cloning techniques also can be used to identify and obtain a nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity. For example, a substrate known to interact with a particular enzymatic polypeptide can be used to screen a phage display library containing that enzymatic polypeptide. Phage display libraries can be generated as described elsewhere (Burritt et al., Anal. Biochem. 238:1-13 (1990)), or can be obtained from commercial suppliers such as Novagen (Madison, Wis.).

Further, polypeptide sequencing techniques can be used to identify and obtain a nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity. For example, a purified polypeptide can be separated by gel electrophoresis, and its amino acid sequence determined by, for example, amino acid microsequencing techniques. Once determined, the amino acid sequence can be used to design degenerate oligonucleotide primers. Degenerate oligonucleotide primers can be used to obtain the nucleic acid encoding the polypeptide by PCR. Once obtained, the nucleic acid can be sequenced, cloned into an appropriate expression vector, and introduced into a microorganism.

Any method can be used to introduce an exogenous nucleic acid molecule into a cell. In fact, many methods for introducing nucleic acid into microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast are well known to those skilled in the art. For example, heat shock, lipofection, electroporation, conjugation, fusion of protoplasts, and biolistic delivery are common methods for introducing nucleic acid into bacteria and yeast cells. See, e.g., Ito et al., J. Bacterol. 153:163-168 (1983); Durrens et al., Curr. Genet. 18:7-12 (1990); and Becker and Guarente, Methods in Enzymology 194:182-187 (1991).

An exogenous nucleic acid molecule contained within a particular cell of the invention can be maintained within that cell in any form. For example, exogenous nucleic acid molecules can be integrated into the genome of the cell or maintained in an episomal state. In other words, a cell of the invention can be a stable or transient transformant. Again, a microorganism described herein can contain a single copy, or multiple copies (e.g., about 5, 10, 20, 35, 50, 75, 100 or 150 copies), of a particular exogenous nucleic acid molecule as described herein.

Methods for expressing an amino acid sequence from an exogenous nucleic acid molecule are well known to those skilled in the art. Such methods include, without limitation, constructing a nucleic acid such that a regulatory element promotes the expression of a nucleic acid sequence that encodes a polypeptide. Typically, regulatory elements are DNA sequences that regulate the expression of other DNA sequences at the level of transcription. Thus, regulatory elements include, without limitation, promoters, enhancers, and the like. Any type of promoter can be used to express an amino acid sequence from an exogenous nucleic acid molecule. Examples of promoters include, without limitation, constitutive promoters, tissue-specific promoters, and promoters responsive or unresponsive to a particular stimulus (e.g., light, oxygen, chemical concentration, and the like). Moreover, methods for expressing a polypeptide from an exogenous nucleic acid molecule in cells such as bacterial cells and yeast cells are well known to those skilled in the art. For example, nucleic acid constructs that are capable of expressing exogenous polypeptides within E. coli are well known. See, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual, Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory Press, New York, USA, second edition (1989).

B. Production of Organic Acids and Related Products Via Host Cells

The nucleic acid and amino acid sequences provided herein can be used with cells to produce 3-HP and/or other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, esters of 3-HP, and polymerized 3-HP. Such cells can be from any species including those listed within the taxonomy web pages at the National Institute of Health sponsored by the United States government (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic. For example, genetically modified cells of the invention can be mammalian cells (e.g., human, murine, and bovine cells), plant cells (e.g., corn, wheat, rice, and soybean cells), fungal cells (e.g., Aspergillus and Rhizopus cells), yeast cells, or bacterial cells (e.g., Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bacillus, Escherichia, and Clostridium cells). A cell of the invention also can be a microorganism. The term “microorganism” as used herein refers to any microscopic organism including, without limitation, bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa. Thus, E. coli, S. cerevisiae, Kluveromyces lactis, Candida blankii, Candida rugosa, and Pichia postoris are considered microorganisms and can be used as described herein.

Typically, a cell of the invention is genetically modified such that a particular organic compound is produced. In one embodiment, the invention provides cells that make 3-HP from PEP. Examples biosynthetic pathways that can be used by cells to make 3-HP are shown in FIGS. 1-5, 43-44, 54, and 55.

Generally, cells that are genetically modified to synthesize a particular organic compound contain one or more exogenous nucleic acid molecules that encode polypeptides having specific enzymatic activities. For example, a microorganism can contain exogenous nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. In this case, acrylyl-CoA can be converted into 3-hydroxypropionic acid-CoA which can lead to the production of 3-HP. It is noted that a cell can be given an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having an enzymatic activity that catalyzes the production of a compound not normally produced by that cell. Alternatively, a cell can be given an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having an enzymatic activity that catalyzes the production of a compound that is normally produced by that cell. In this case, the genetically modified cell can produce more of the compound, or can produce the compound more efficiently, than a similar cell not having the genetic modification.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a cell containing an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity that leads to the formation of 3-HP. It is noted that the produced 3-HP can be secreted from the cell, eliminating the need to disrupt cell membranes to retrieve the organic compound. Typically, the cell of the invention produces 3-HP with the concentration being at least about 100 mg per L (e.g., at least about 1 g/L, 5 g/L, 10 g/L, 25 g/L, 50 g/L, 75 g/L, 80 g/L, 90 g/L, 100 g/L, or 120 g/L). When determining the yield of an organic compound such as 3-HP for a particular cell, any method can be used. See, e.g., Applied Environmental Microbiology 59(12):4261-4265 (1993). Typically, a cell within the scope of the invention such as a microorganism catabolizes a hexose carbon source such as glucose. A cell, however, can catabolize a variety of carbon sources such as pentose sugars (e.g., ribose, arabinose, xylose, and lyxose), fatty acids, acetate, or glycerols. In other words, a cell within the scope of the invention can utilize a variety of carbon sources.

As described herein, a cell within the scope of the invention can contain an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a polypeptide having enzymatic activity that leads to the formation of 3-HP or other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, poly-acrylate, acrylate-esters, 3-HP-esters, and poly-3-HP. Methods of identifying cells that contain exogenous nucleic acid are well known to those skilled in the art. Such methods include, without limitation, PCR and nucleic acid hybridization techniques such as Northern and Southern analysis (see hybridization described herein). In some cases, immunohisto-chemistry and biochemical techniques can be used to determine if a cell contains a particular nucleic acid by detecting the expression of the polypeptide encoded by that particular nucleic acid molecule. For example, an antibody having specificity for a polypeptide can be used to determine whether or not a particular cell contains nucleic acid encoding that polypeptide. Further, biochemical techniques can be used to determine if a cell contains a particular nucleic acid molecule encoding a polypeptide having enzymatic activity by detecting an organic product produced as a result of the expression of the polypeptide having enzymatic activity. For example, detection of 3-HP after introduction of exogenous nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity into a cell that does not normally express such a polypeptide can indicate that that cell not only contains the introduced exogenous nucleic acid molecule but also expresses the encoded polypeptide from that introduced exogenous nucleic acid molecule. Methods for detecting specific enzymatic activities or the presence of particular organic products are well known to those skilled in the art. For example, the presence of an organic compound such as 3-HP can be determined as described elsewhere. See, Sullivan and Clarke, J. Assoc. Offic. Agr. Chemists, 38:514-518 (1955).

C. Cells with Reduced Polypeptide Activity

The invention also provides genetically modified cells having reduced polypeptide activity. The term “reduced” as used herein with respect to a cell and a particular polypeptide's activity refers to a lower level of activity than that measured in a comparable cell of the same species. For example, a particular microorganism lacking enzymatic activity X is considered to have reduced enzymatic activity X if a comparable microorganism has at least some enzymatic activity X. It is noted that a cell can have the activity of any type of polypeptide reduced including, without limitation, enzymes, transcription factors, transporters, receptors, signal molecules, and the like. For example, a cell can contain an exogenous nucleic acid molecule that disrupts a regulatory and/or coding sequence of a polypeptide having pyruvate decarboxylase activity or alcohol dehydrogenase activity. Disrupting pyruvate decarboxylase and/or alcohol dehydrogenase expression can lead to the accumulation of lactate as well as products produced from lactate such as 3-HP, 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, poly-acrylate, acrylate-esters, 3-HP-esters, and poly-3-HP. It is also noted that reduced polypeptide activities can be the result of lower polypeptide concentration, lower specific activity of a polypeptide, or combinations thereof. Many different methods can be used to make a cell having reduced polypeptide activity. For example, a cell can be engineered to have a disrupted regulatory sequence or polypeptide-encoding sequence using common mutagenesis or knock-out technology. See, e.g., Methods in Yeast Genetics (1997 edition), Adams, Gottschling, Kaiser, and Sterns, Cold Spring Harbor Press (1998). Alternatively, antisense technology can be used to reduce the activity of a particular polypeptide. For example, a cell can be engineered to contain a cDNA that encodes an antisense molecule that prevents a polypeptide from being translated. The term “antisense molecule” as used herein encompasses any nucleic acid molecule or nucleic acid analog (e.g., peptide nucleic acids) that contains a sequence that corresponds to the coding strand of an endogenous polypeptide. An antisense molecule also can have flanking sequences (e.g., regulatory sequences). Thus, antisense molecules can be ribozymes or antisense oligonucleotides. A ribozyme can have any general structure including, without limitation, hairpin, hammerhead, or axhead structures, provided the molecule cleaves RNA. Further, gene silencing can be used to reduce the activity of a particular polypeptide.

A cell having reduced activity of a polypeptide can be identified using any method. For example, enzyme activity assays such as those described herein can be used to identify cells having a reduced enzyme activity.

A polypeptide having (1) the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:39 (the OS17 polypeptide) or (2) an amino acid sequence sharing at least about 60 percent sequence identity with the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:39 can have three functional domains: a domain having CoA-synthatase activity, a domain having 3-HP-CoA dehydratase activity, and a domain having CoA-reductase activity. Such polypeptides can be selectively modified by mutating and/or deleting domains such that one or two of the enzymatic activities are reduced. Reducing the dehydratase activity of the OS17 polypeptide can cause acrylyl-CoA to be created from propionyl-CoA. The acrylyl-CoA then can be contacted with a polypeptide having CoA hydrolase activity to produce acrylate from propionate (FIG. 43). Similarly, acrylyl-CoA can be created from 3-HP by using, for example, an OS17 polypeptide having reduced reductase activity.

D. Production of Organic Acids and Related Products Via In Vitro Techniques

In addition, purified polypeptides having enzymatic activity can be used alone or in combination with cells to produce 3-HP or other organic compounds such as 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, esters of 3-HP, and polymerized 3-HP. For example, a preparation containing a substantially pure polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity can be used to catalyze the formation of 3-HP-CoA, a precursor to 3-HP. Further, cell-free extracts containing a polypeptide having enzymatic activity can be used alone or in combination with purified polypeptides and/or cells to produce 3-HP. For example, a cell-free extract containing a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity can be used to form lactyl-CoA, while a microorganism containing polypeptides have the enzymatic activities necessary to catalyze the reactions needed to form 3-HP from lactyl-CoA can be used to produce 3-HP. Any method can be used to produce a cell-free extract. For example, osmotic shock, sonication, and/or a repeated freeze-thaw cycle followed by filtration and/or centrifugation can be used to produce a cell-free extract from intact cells.

It is noted that a cell, purified polypeptide, and/or cell-free extract can be used to produce 3-HP that is, in turn, treated chemically to produce another compound. For example, a microorganism can be used to produce 3-HP, while a chemical process is used to modify 3-HP into a derivative such as polymerized 3-HP or an ester of 3-HP. Likewise, a chemical process can be used to produce a particular compound that is, in turn, converted into 3-HP or other organic compound (e.g., 1,3-propanediol, acrylic acid, polymerized acrylate, esters of acrylate, esters of 3-HP, and polymerized 3-HP) using a cell, substantially pure polypeptide, and/or cell-free extract described herein. For example, a chemical process can be used to produce acrylyl-CoA, while a microorganism can be used convert acrylyl-CoA into 3-HP.

E. Fermentation of Cells to Produce Organic Acids

Typically, 3-HP is produced by providing a production cell, such as a microorganism, and culturing the microorganism with culture medium such that 3-HP is produced. In general, the culture media and/or culture conditions can be such that the microorganisms grow to an adequate density and produce 3-HP efficiently. For large-scale production processes, any method can be used such as those described elsewhere (Manual of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2^(nd) Edition, Editors: A. L. Demain and J. E. Davies, ASM Press; and Principles of Fermentation Technology, P. F. Stanbury and A. Whitaker, Pergamon). Briefly, a large tank (e.g., a 100 gallon, 200 gallon, 500 gallon, or more tank) containing appropriate culture medium with, for example, a glucose carbon source is inoculated with a particular microorganism. After inoculation, the microorganisms are incubated to allow biomass to be produced. Once a desired biomass is reached, the broth containing the microorganisms can be transferred to a second tank. This second tank can be any size. For example, the second tank can be larger, smaller, or the same size as the first tank. Typically, the second tank is larger than the first such that additional culture medium can be added to the broth from the first tank. In addition, the culture medium within this second tank can be the same as, or different from, that used in the first tank. For example, the first tank can contain medium with xylose, while the second tank contains medium with glucose.

Once transferred, the microorganisms can be incubated to allow for the production of 3-HP. Once produced, any method can be used to isolate the 3-HP. For example, common separation techniques can be used to remove the biomass from the broth, and common isolation procedures (e.g., extraction, distillation, and ion-exchange procedures) can be used to obtain the 3-HP from the microorganism-free broth. In addition, 3-HP can be isolated while it is being produced, or it can be isolated from the broth after the product production phase has been terminated.

F. Products Created from the Disclosed Biosynthetic Routes

The organic compounds produced from any of the steps provided in FIGS. 1-5, 43-44, 54, and 55 can be chemically converted into other organic compounds. For example, 3-HP can be hydrogenated to form 1,3 propanediol, a valuable polyester monomer. Hydrogenating an organic acid such as 3-HP can be performed using any method such as those used to hydrogenate succinic acid and/or lactic acid. For example, 3-HP can be hydrogenated using a metal catalyst. In another example, 3-HP can be dehydrated to form acrylic acid. Any method can be used to perform a dehydration reaction. For example, 3-HP can be heated in the presence of a catalyst (e.g., a metal or mineral acid catalyst) to form acrylic acid. Propanediol also can be created using polypeptides having oxidoreductase activity (e.g., enzymes is the 1.1.1.-class of enzymes) in vitro or in vivo.

V. Overview of Methodology Used to Create Biosynthetic Pathways That Make 3-HP from PEP

The invention provides methods of making 3-HP and related products from PEP via the use of biosynthetic pathways. Illustrative examples include methods involving the production of 3-HP via a lactate intermediate, a malonyl-CoA intermediate, and a β-alanine intermediate.

A. Biosynthetic Pathway for Making 3-HP Through a Lactic Acid Intermediate

A biosynthetic pathway that allows for the production of 3-HP from PEP was constructed (FIG. 1). This pathway involved using several polypeptides that were cloned and expressed as described herein. M. elsdenii cells (ATCC 17753) were used as a source of genomic DNA. Primers were used to identify and clone a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (SEQ ID NO: 1). The polypeptide was subsequently tested for enzymatic activity and found to have CoA transferase activity.

Similarly, PCR primers were used to identify nucleic acid sequences from M. elsdenii genomic DNA that encoded an E1 activator, E2 α, and E2 β polypeptides (SEQ ID NOs: 9, 17, and 25, respectively). These polypeptides were subsequently shown to have lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity.

Chloroflexus aurantiacus cells (ATCC 29365) were used as a source of genomic DNA. Initial cloning lead to the identification of nucleic acid sequences: OS17 (SEQ ID NO: 129) and OS19 (SEQ ID NO: 40). Subsequence assays revealed that OS17 encodes a polypeptide having CoA synthase activity, dehydratase activity, and dehydrogenase activity (propionyl-CoA synthatase). Subsequence assays also revealed that OS19 encodes a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity (also referred to as acrylyl-CoA hydratase activity).

Several operons were constructed for use in E. coli. These operons allow for the production of 3-HP in bacterial cells. Additional experiments allowed for the expression of these polypeptide is yeast, which can be used to produce 3-HP.

B. Biosynthetic Pathway for Making 3-HP Through a Malonyl-CoA Intermediate

Another pathway leading to the production of 3-HP from PEP was constructed. This pathway used a polypeptide having acetyl CoA carboxylase activity that was isolated from E. coli (Example 9), and a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity that was isolated from Chloroflexus aurantacius (Example 10). The combination of these two polypeptides allows for the production of 3-HP from acetyl-CoA (FIG. 44).

Nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity (SEQ ID NO:140) was cloned, sequenced, and expressed. The polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity was then used to make 3-HP.

C. Biosynthetic Pathways for Making 3-HP Through a β-Alanine Intermediate

In general, prokaryotes and eukaryotes metabolize glucose via the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway to PEP, a central metabolite in carbon metabolism. The PEP generated from glucose is either carboxylated to oxlaoacetate or is converted to pyruvate. Carboxylation of PEP to oxaloacetate can be catalyzed by a polypeptide having PEP carboxylase activity, a polypeptide having PEP carboxykinase activity, or a polypeptide having PEP transcarboxylase activity. Pyruvate that is generated from PEP by a polypeptide having pyruvate kinase activity can also be converted to oxaloacetate by a polypeptide having pyruvate carboxylase activity.

Oxaloacetate generated either from PEP or pyruvate can act as a precursor for production of aspartic acid. This conversion can be carried out by a polypeptide having aspartate aminotransferase activity, which transfers an amino group from glutamate to oxaloacetate. Glutamate consumed in this reaction can be regenerated by the action of a polypeptide having glutamate dehydrogenase activity or by the action of a polypeptide having 4,4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase activity. The decarboxylation of aspartate to β-alanine is catalyzed by a polypeptide having aspartate decarboxylase activity. β-alanine produced through this biochemistry can be converted to 3-HP via two possible pathways. These pathways are provided in FIGS. 54 and 55.

The steps involved in the production of β-alanine can be the same for both pathways. These steps can be accomplished by endogenous polypeptides in the host cells which convert PEP to β-alanine, or these steps can be accomplished with recombinant DNA technology using known polypeptides such as polypeptides having PEP-carboxykinase activity (4.1.1.32), aspartate aminotransferase activity (2.6.1.1), and aspartate alpha-decarboxylase activity (4.1.1.11).

As depicted in FIG. 54, a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (e.g., a polypeptide having a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2) can be used to convert β-alanine to β-alanyl-CoA. β-alanyl-CoA can be converted to acrylyl-CoA via a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (e.g., a polypeptide having a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:160). Acrylyl-CoA can be converted to 3-HP-CoA using a polypeptide having 3-HP-CoA dehydratase activity (e.g., a polypeptide having a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:40). 3-HP-CoA can be converted into 3-HP via a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (e.g., a polypeptide having a sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2).

As depicted in FIG. 55, a polypeptide having 4,4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase activity (2.6.1.19) can be used to convert β-alanine into malonate semialdehyde. The malonate semialdehyde can be converted into 3-HP using either a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase activity (1.1.1.59) or a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase activity.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Cloning Nucleic Acid Molecules that Encode a Polypeptide Having CoA Transferase Activity

Genomic DNA was isolated from Megasphaera elsdenii cells (ATCC 17753) grown in 1053 Reinforced Clostridium media under anaerobic conditions at 37° C. in roll tubes for 12-14 hours. Once grown, the cells were pelleted, washed with 5 mL of a 10 mM Tris solution, and repelleted. The pellet was resuspended in 1 mL of Gentra Cell Suspension Solution to which 14.2 mg of lysozyme and 4 μL of 20 mg/mL proteinase K solution was added. The cell suspension was incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The genomic DNA was than isolated using a Gentra Genomic DNA Isolation Kit following the provided protocol. The precipitated genomic DNA was spooled and air-dried for 10 minutes. The genomic DNA was suspended in 500 μL of a 10 mM Tris solution and stored at 4° C.

Two degenerate forward (CoAF1 and CoAF2) and three degenerate reverse (CoAR1, CoAR2, and CoAR3) PCR primers were designed based on conserved acetoacetyl CoA transferase and propionate CoA transferase sequences (CoAF1 5′-GAAWSCGGYSCNATYGGYGG-3′, SEQ ID NO: 49; CoAF2 5′-TTYTGYG-GYRSBTTYACBGCWGG-3′, SEQ ID NO: 50; CoAR1 5′-CCWGCVGTRAAV-SYRCCRCARAA-3′, SEQ ID NO: 51; CoAR2 5′-AARACDSMRCGTTCVGTRA-TRTA-3′, SEQ ID NO: 52; and CoAR35′-TCRAYRCCSGGWGCRAYTTC-3′, SEQ ID NO: 53). The primers were used in all logical combinations in PCR using Taq polymerase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.) and 1 ng of genomic DNA per μL reaction mix. PCR was conducted using a touchdown PCR program with 4 cycles at an annealing temperature of 59° C., 4 cycles at 57° C., 4 cycles at 55° C., and 18 cycles at 52° C. Each cycle used an initial 30-second denaturing step at 94° C. and a 3 minute extension at 72° C. The program had an initial denaturing step for 2 minutes at 94° C. and a final extension step of 4 minutes at 72° C. Time allowed for annealing was 45 seconds. The amounts of PCR primer used in the reactions were increased 2-8 fold above typical PCR amounts depending on the amount of degeneracy in the 3′ end of the primer. In addition, separate PCR reactions containing each individual primer were made to identify PCR products resulting from single degenerate primers. Each PCR product (25 μL) was separated by electrophoresis using a 1% TAE (Tris-acetate-EDTA) agarose gel.

The CoAF1-CoAR2, CoAF1-CoAR3, CoAF2-CoAR2, and CoAF2-CoAR3 combinations produced a band of 423, 474, 177, and 228 bp, respectively. These bands matched the sizes based on other CoA transferase sequences. No band was visible from the individual primer control reactions. The CoAF1-CoAR3 fragment (474 bp) was isolated and purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). Four μL of the purified band was ligated into pCRII vector and transformed into TOP 10 E. coli cells by heat-shock using a TOPO cloning procedure (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Transformations were plated on LB media containing 100 μg/mL of ampicillin (Amp) and 50 μg/mL of 5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl-B-D-Galactopyranoside (X-gal). Single, white colonies were plated onto fresh media and screened in a PCR reaction using the CoAF1 and CoAR3 primers to confirm the presence of the insert.

Plasmid DNA obtained using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen, Inc) was quantified and used for DNA sequencing with M13R and M13F primers. Sequence analysis revealed that the CoAF1-CoAR3 fragment shared sequence similarity with acetoacetyl CoA transferase sequences.

Genome walking was performed to obtain the complete coding sequence. The following primers for genome walking in both upstream and downstream directions were designed using the portion of the 474 bp CoAF1-CoAR3 fragment sequence that was internal to the degenerate primers (COAGSP1F 5′-GAATGTTTACTTCTGCGGCACCTTCAC-3′, SEQ ID NO:54; COAGSP2F 5′-GACCAGATCACTTTCAACGGTTCCTATG-3′, SEQ ID NO:55; COAGSP1R 5′-GCATAGGAACCGTTGAAAGTGATCTGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:56; and COAGSP2R 5′-GTTAGTACCGAACTTGCTGACGTTGATG-3′, SEQ ID NO:57). The COAGSP1F and COAGSP2F primers face downstream, while the COAGSP1R and COAGSP2R primers face upstream. In addition, the COAGSP2F and COAGSP2R primers are nested inside the COAGSP1F and COAGSP1R primers. Genome walking was performed using the Universal Genome Walking kit (ClonTech Laboratories, Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.) with the exception that additional libraries were generated with enzymes Nru I, Sca I, and Hinc II. First round PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler with 7 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 36 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 65° C. with a final extension at 65° C. for 4 minutes. Second round PCR used 5 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 20 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 65° C. with a final extension at 65° C. for 4 minutes. The first and second round product (20 μL) was separated by electrophoresis on a 1% TAE agarose gel. Amplification products were obtained with the Stu I library for the reverse direction. The second round product of 1.5 Kb from this library was gel purified, cloned, and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed that the sequence derived from genome walking overlapped with the CoAF1-CoAR3 fragment and shared sequence similarity with other sequences such as acetoacetyl CoA transferase sequences (FIGS. 8-9).

Nucleic acid encoding the CoA transferase (propionyl-CoA transferase or pct) from Megasphaera elsdenii was PCR amplified from chromosomal DNA using following PCR program: 25 cycles of 95° C. for 30 seconds to denature, 50° C. for 30 seconds to anneal, and 72° C. for 3 minutes for extension (plus 2 seconds per cycle). The primers used were designated PCT-1.114 (5′-ATGAGAAAAGTAGAAATCATTAC-3′; SEQ ID NO:58) and PCT-2.2045 (5′-GGCGGAAGTTGACGATAATG-3′; SEQ ID NO:59). The resulting PCR product (about 2 kb as judged by agarose gel electrophoresis) was purified using a Qiagen PCR purification kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). The purified product was ligated to pETBlue-1 using the Perfectly Blunt cloning Kit (Novagen, Madison, Wis.). The ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.) that were spread on LB agar plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin, 40 μg/mL IPTG, and 40 μg/mL X-Gal. White colonies were isolated and screened for the presence of inserts by restriction mapping. Isolates with the correct restriction pattern were sequenced from each end using the primers pETBlueUP and pETBlueDOWN (Novagen) to confirm the sequence at the ligation points.

The plasmid was transformed into Tuner (DE3) pLacI chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.), and expression from the construct tested. Briefly, a culture was grown overnight to saturation and diluted 1:20 the following morning in fresh LB medium with the appropriate antibiotics. The culture was grown at 37° C. with aeration to an OD₆₀₀ of about 0.6. The culture was induced with IPTG at a final concentration of 100 μM. The culture was incubated for an additional two hours at 37° C. with aeration. Aliquots were taken pre-induction and 2 hours post-induction for SDS-PAGE analysis. A band of the expected molecular weight (55,653 Daltons predicted from the sequence) was observed after IPTG treatment. This band was not observed in cells containing a plasmid lacking the nucleic acid encoding the transferase.

Cell free extracts were prepared to assess enzymatic activity. Briefly, the cells were harvested by centrifugation and disrupted by sonication. The sonicated cell suspension was centrifuged to remove cell debris, and the supernatant was used in the assays.

Transferase activity was measured in the following assay. The assay mixture used contained 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), 200 mM sodium acetate, 1 mM dithiobisnitrobenzoate (DTNB), 500 μM oxaloacetate, 25 μM CoA-ester substrate, and 3 μg/mL citrate synthase. If present, the CoA transferase transfers the CoA from the CoA ester to acetate to form acetyl-CoA. The added citrate synthase condenses oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA to form citrate and free CoASH. The free CoASH complexes with DTNB, and the formation of this complex can be measured by a change in the optical density at 412 nm. The activity of the CoA transferase was measured using the following substrates: lactyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, acrylyl-CoA, and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA. The units/mg of protein was calculated using the following formula: (ΔE/min*V _(f)*dilution factor)/(V _(S)*14.2)=units/mL where ΔE/min is the change in absorbance per minute at 412 nm, V_(f) is the final volume of the reaction, and V_(S) is the volume of sample added. The total protein concentration of the cell free extract was about 1 mg/mL so the units/mL equals units/mg.

Cell free extracts from cells containing nucleic acid encoding the CoA transferase exhibited CoA transferase activity (Table 2). The observed CoA transferase activity was detected for the lactyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, acrylyl-CoA, and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA substrates (Table 2). The highest CoA transferase activity was detected for lactyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA.

TABLE 2 Substrate Units/mg Lactyl-CoA 211 Propionyl-CoA 144 Acrylyl-CoA 118 3-Hydroxypropionyl-CoA 110

The following assay was performed to test whether the CoA transferase activity can use the same CoA substrate donors as recipients. Specifically, CoA transferase activity was assessed using a Matrix-assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) Voyager RP workstation (PerSeptive Biosystems). The following five reactions were analyzed:

1) acetate+lactyl-CoA→lactate+acetyl-CoA

2) acetate+propionyl-CoA→propionate+acetyl-CoA

3) lactate+acetyl-CoA→acetate+lactyl-CoA

4) lactate+acrylyl-CoA→acrylate+lactyl-CoA

5) 3-hydroxypropionate+lactyl-CoA→lactate+3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA

MALDI-TOF MS was used to measure simultaneously the appearance of the product CoA ester and the disappearance of the donor CoA ester. The assay buffer contained 50 mM potassium phosphate (pH 7.0), 1 mM CoA ester, and 100 mM respective acid salt. Protein from a cell free extract prepared as described above was added to a final concentration of 0.005 mg/mL. A control reaction was prepared from a cell free extract prepared from cells lacking the construct containing the CoA transferase-encoding nucleic acid. For each reaction, the cell free extract was added last to start the reaction. Reactions were allowed to proceed at room temperature and were stopped by adding 1 volume 10% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The reaction mixtures were purified prior to MALDI-TOF MS analysis using Sep Pak Vac C₁₈ 50 mg columns (Waters, Inc.). The columns were conditioned with 1 mL methanol and equilibrated with two washes of 1 mL 0.1% TFA. Each sample was applied to the column, and the flow through was discarded. The column was washed twice with 1 mL 0.1% TFA. The sample was eluted in 200 μL 40% acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA. The acetonitrile was removed by centrifugation in vacuo. Samples were prepared for MALDI-TOF MS analysis by mixing 1:1 with 110 mM sinapinic acid in 0.1% TFA, 67% acetonitrile. The samples were allowed to air dry.

In reaction #1, the control sample exhibited a main peak at a molecular weight corresponding to lactyl-CoA (MW 841). There was a minor peak at the molecular weight corresponding to acetyl-CoA (MW 811). This minor peak was determined to be the left-over acetyl-CoA from the synthesis of lactyl-CoA. The reaction #1 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the CoA transferase-encoding plasmid exhibited complete conversion of lactyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA. No peak was observed for lactyl-CoA. This result indicates that the CoA transferase activity can transfer CoA from lactyl-CoA to acetate to form acetyl-CoA.

In reaction #2, the control sample exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to propionyl-CoA (MW 825). The reaction #2 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the CoA transferase-encoding plasmid exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to acetyl-CoA (MW 811). No peak was observed for propionyl-CoA. This result indicates that the CoA transferase activity can transfer CoA from propionyl-CoA to acetate to form acetyl-CoA.

In reaction #3, the control sample exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to acetyl-CoA (MW 811). The reaction #3 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the CoA transferase-encoding plasmid exhibited a peak corresponding to lactyl-CoA (MW 841). The peak corresponding to acetyl-CoA did not disappear. In fact, the ratio of the size of the two peaks was about 1:1. The observed appearance of the peak corresponding to lactyl-CoA demonstrates that the CoA transferase activity catalyzes reaction #3.

In reaction #4, the control sample exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to acrylyl-CoA (MW 823). The reaction #4 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the CoA transferase-encoding plasmid exhibited a dominant peak corresponding to lactyl-CoA (MW 841). This result demonstrates that the CoA transferase activity catalyzes reaction #4.

In reaction #5, deuterated lactyl-CoA was used to detect the transfer of CoA from lactate to 3-hydroxypropionate since lactic acid and 3-HP have the same molecular weight as do their respective CoA esters. Using deuterated lactyl-CoA allowed for the differentiation between lactyl-CoA and 3-hydroxypropionate using MALDI-TOF MS. The control sample exhibited a diffuse group of peaks at molecular weights ranging from MW 841 to 845 due to the varying amounts of hydrogen atoms that were replaced with deuterium atoms. In addition, a significant peak was observed at a molecular weight corresponding to acetyl-CoA (MW 811). This peak was determined to be the left-over acetyl-CoA from the synthesis of lactyl-CoA. The reaction #5 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the CoA transferase-encoding plasmid exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA (MW 841) as opposed to a group of peaks ranging from MW 841 to 845. This result demonstrates that the CoA transferase catalyzes reaction #5.

Example 2 Cloning Nucleic Acid Molecules that Encode a Multiple Polypeptide Complex Having Lactyl-CoA Dehydratase Activity

The following methods were used to clone an E1 activator polypeptide. Briefly, four degenerate forward and five degenerate reverse PCR primers were designed based on conserved sequences of E1 activator protein homologs (E1F1 5′-GCWACBGGY-TAYGGYCG-3′, SEQ ID NO:60; E1F2 5′-GTYRTYGAYRTYGGYGGYCAGGA-3′, SEQ ID NO:61; E1F3 5′-ATGAACGAYAARTGYGCWGCWGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:62; E1F4 5′-TGYGCWGCWGGYACBGGYCGYTT-3′, SEQ ID NO:63; E1R1 5′-TCCT-GRCCRCCRAYRTCRAYRAC-3′, SEQ ID NO:64; E1R2 5′-CCWGCWGCRCAY-TTRTCGTTCAT-3′, SEQ ID NO:65; E1R35′-AARCGRCCVGTRCCWGCWG-CRCA-3′, SEQ ID NO:66; E1R45′-GCTTCGSWTTCRACRATGSW-3′, SEQ ID NO:67; and E1R55′-GSWRATRACTTCGCWTTCWGCRAA-3′, SEQ ID NO:68).

The primers were used in all logical combinations in PCR using Taq polymerase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.) and 1 ng of genomic DNA per μL reaction mix. PCR was conducted using a touchdown PCR program with 4 cycles at an annealing temperature of 60° C., 4 cycles at 58° C., 4 cycles at 56° C., and 18 cycles at 54° C. Each cycle used an initial 30-second denaturing step at 94° C. and a 3 minute extension step at 72° C. The program had an initial denaturing step for 2 minutes at 94° C. and a final extension step of 4 minutes at 72° C. Time allowed for annealing was 45 seconds. The amounts of PCR primer used in the reactions were increased 2-10 fold above typical PCR amounts depending on the amount of degeneracy in the 3′ end of the primer. In addition, separate PCR reactions containing each individual primer were made to identify PCR product resulting from single degenerate primers. Each PCR product (25 μL) was separated by electrophoresis using a 1% TAE (Tris-acetate-EDTA) agarose gel.

The E1F2-E1R4, E1F2-E1R5, E1F3-E1R4, E1F3-E1R5, and E1F4-E1R4R2 combinations produced a band of 195, 207, 144, 156, and 144 bp, respectively. These bands matched the expected size based on E1 activator sequences from other species. No band was visible with individual primer control reactions. The E1F2-E1R5 fragment (207 bp) was isolated and purified using Qiagen Gel Extraction procedure (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). The purified band (4 mL) was ligated into a pCRII vector that then was transformed into TOP10 E. coli cells by heat-shock using a TOPO cloning procedure (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Transformations were plated on LB media containing 100 μg/mL of ampicillin (Amp) and 50 μg/mL of 5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl-B-D-Galactopyranoside (X-gal). Single, white colonies were plated onto fresh media and screened in a PCR reaction using the E1F2 and E1R5 primers to confirm the presence of the insert. Plasmid DNA was obtained from multiple colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen, Inc). Once obtained, the plasmid DNA was quantified and used for DNA sequencing with M13R and M13F primers. Sequence analysis revealed a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide and revealed that the E1F2-E1R5 fragment shared sequence similarity with E1 activator sequences (FIGS. 12-13).

Genome walking was performed to obtain the complete coding sequence of E2 α and β subunits. Briefly, four primers for performing genome walking in both upstream and downstream directions were designed using the portion of the 207 bp E1F2-E1R5 fragment sequence that was internal to the E1F2 and E1R5 degenerate primers (E1GSP1F 5′-ACGTCATGTCGAAGGTACTGGAAATC C-3 SEQ ID NO:69; E1GSP2F 5′-GGGACTGGTACTTCAAATCGAAGCATC-3′, SEQ ID NO:70; E1GSP1R 5′-TGACGGCAGCGGGATGCTTCGATTTGA-3′, SEQ ID NO:71; and E1GSP2R 5′-TCAGACATGGGGATTTCCAGTACCTTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:72). The E1GSP1F and E1GSP2F primers face downstream, while the E1GSP1R and E1GSP2R primers face upstream. In addition, the E1 GSP2F and E1 GSP2R primers are nested inside the E1GSP1F and E1GSP1R primers.

Genome walking was performed using the Universal Genome Walking Kit (ClonTech Laboratories, Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.) with the exception that additional libraries were generated with enzymes Nru I, Sca I, and Hinc II. First round PCR was performed in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler with 7 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 36 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 65° C. with a final extension at 65° C. for 4 minutes. Second round PCR used 5 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 20 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 65° C. with a final extension at 65° C. for 4 minutes. The first and second round product (20 μL) was separated by electrophoresis using 1% TAE agarose gel. Amplification products were obtained with the Stu I library for both forward and reverse directions. The second round product of about 1.5 kb for forward direction and 3 kb fragment for reverse direction from the Stu I library were gel purified, cloned, and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed that the sequence derived from genome walking overlapped with the E1F2-E1R5 fragment.

To obtain additional sequence, a second genome walk was performed using a first round primer (E1GSPF5 5′-CCGTGTTACTTGGGAAGGTATCGCTGTCTG-3′, SEQ ID NO:73) and a second round primer (E1GSPF6 5′-GCCAATGAAGGAGGAAA-CCACTAATGAGTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:74). The genome walk was performed using the NruI, ScaI, and HincII libraries. In addition, ClonTech's Advantage-Genomic Polymerase was used for the PCR. First round PCR was performed in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler with an initial denaturing step at 94° C. for 2 minutes, 7 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 36 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 65° C. with a final extension at 65° C. for 4 minutes. Second round PCR used 5 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 20 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 65° C. with a final extension at 65° C. for 4 minutes. The first and second round product (20 μL) was separated by electrophoresis on a 1% agarose gel. An about 1.5 kb amplification product was obtained from second round PCR of the HincII library. This band was gel purified, cloned, and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed that it overlapped with the previously obtained genome walk fragment. In addition, sequence analysis revealed a nucleic acid sequence encoding an E2 α subunit that shares sequence similarities with other sequences (FIGS. 16-17). Further, sequence analysis revealed a nucleic acid sequence encoding an E2 β subunit that shares sequence similarities with other sequences (FIGS. 20-21).

Additional PCR and sequence analysis revealed the order of polypeptide encoding sequences within the region containing the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequences. Specifically, the E1GSP1F and COAGSP1R primer pair and the COAGSP1F and E1GSP1R primer pair were used to amplify fragments that encode both the CoA transferase and E1 activator polypeptides. Briefly, M. elsdenii genome DNA (1 ng) was used as a template. The PCR was conducted in Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler using Long Template Polymerase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.). The PCR program used was as follows: 94° C. for 2 minutes; 29 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 61° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 6 minutes; and a final extension of 72° C. for 10 minutes. Both PCR products (20 μL) were separated on a 1% agarose gel. An amplification product (about 1.5 kb) was obtained using the COAGSP1F and E1GSP1R primer pair. This product was gel purified, cloned, and sequenced (FIGS. 22A-B).

The organization of the M. elsdenii operon containing the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequences was determined to containing the following polypeptide-encoding sequences in the following order: CoA transferase (FIG. 6), ORFX (FIG. 23), E1 activator protein of lactyl-CoA dehydratase (FIG. 10), E2 α subunit of lactyl-CoA dehydratase (FIG. 14), E2 β subunit of lactyl-CoA dehydratase (FIG. 18), and truncated CoA dehydrogenase (FIG. 25). The lactyl-CoA dehydratase (lactyl-CoA dehydratase or lcd) from M. elsdenii was PCR amplified from chromosomal DNA using the following program: 94° C. for 2 minutes; 7 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 47° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; 25 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; and 72° C. for 7 minutes. One primer pair was used (OSNBE1F 5′-GGGAATTCCATATG-AAAACTGTGTATACTCTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:75 and OSNBE1R 5′-CGACGGATCCTTAGAGGATTTCCGAGAAAGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:76). The amplified product (about 3.2 kb) was separated on 1% agarose gel, cut from the gel, and purified with a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.). The purified product was digested with Nde I and BamHI restriction enzymes and ligated into pET11a vector (Novagen) digested with the same enzymes. The ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen) that then were spread on LB agar plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. Isolated individual colonies were screened for the presence of inserts by restriction mapping. Isolates with the correct restriction pattern were sequenced from each end using Novagen primers (T7 promoter primer #69348-3 and T7 terminator primer #69337-3) to confirm the sequence at the ligation points.

A plasmid having the correct insert was transformed into Tuner (DE3) pLacI chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.). Expression from this construct was tested as follows. A culture was grown overnight to saturation and diluted 1:20 the following morning in fresh LB medium with the appropriate antibiotics. The culture was grown at 37° C. with aeration to an OD₆₀₀ of about 0.6. The culture was induced with IPTG at a final concentration of 100 μM. The culture was incubated for an additional two hours at 37° C. with aeration. Aliquots were taken pre-induction and 2 hours post-induction for SDS-PAGE analysis. Bands of the expected molecular weight (27,024 Daltons for the E1 subunit, 48,088 Daltons for the E2 α subunit, and 42,517 Daltons for the E2 β subunit—all predicted from the sequence) were observed. These bands were not observed in cells containing a plasmid lacking the nucleic acid encoding the three components of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase.

Cell free extracts were prepared by growing cells in a sealed serum bottle overnight at 37° C. Following overnight growth, the cultures were induced with 1 mM IPTG (added using anaerobic technique) and incubated an additional 2 hours at 37° C. The cells were harvested by centrifugation and disrupted by sonication under strict anaerobic conditions. The sonicated cell suspension was centrifuged to remove cell debris, and the supernatant was used in the assays. The buffer used for cell resuspension/sonication was 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 200 μM ATP, 7 mM Mg(SO₄), 4 mM DTT, 1 mM dithionite, and 100 μM NADH.

Dehydratase activity was detected with MALDI-TOF MS. The assay was conducted in the same buffer as above with 1 mM lactyl-CoA or 1 mM acrylyl-CoA added and about 5 mg/mL cell free extract. Prior to MALDI-TOF MS analysis, samples were purified using Sep Pak Vac C₁₈ columns (Waters, Inc.) as described in Example 1. The following two reactions were analyzed:

1) acrylyl-CoA→lactyl-CoA

2) lactyl-CoA acrylyl-CoA

In reaction #1, the control sample exhibited a peak at a molecular weight corresponding to acrylyl-CoA (MW 823). The reaction #1 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the dehydratase-encoding plasmid exhibited a major peak at a molecular weight corresponding to lactyl-CoA (MW 841). This result indicates that the dehydratase activity can convert acrylyl-CoA into lactyl-CoA.

To detect dehydratase activity on lactyl-CoA, reaction #2 was carried out in 80% D₂O. The control sample exhibited a peak at a molecular weight corresponding to lactyl-CoA (MW 841). The reaction #2 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the dehydratase-encoding plasmid revealed a lactyl-CoA peak shifted to a deuterated form. This result indicates that the dehydratase enzyme is active on lactyl-CoA. In addition, the results from both reactions indicate that the dehydratase enzyme can catalyze the lactyl-CoA acrylyl-CoA reaction in both directions.

Example 3 Cloning Nucleic Acid Molecules that Encode a Polypeptide Having 3-Hydroxypropionyl CoA Dehydratase Activity

Genomic DNA was isolated from Chloroflexus aurantiacus cells (ATCC 29365). Briefly, C. aurantiacus cells in 920 Chloroflexus medium were grown in 50 mL cultures (Falcon 2070 polypropylene tubes) using an Innova 4230 Incubator, Shaker (New Brunswick Scientific; Edison, N.J.) at 50° C. with interior lights. Once grown, the cells were pelleted, washed with 5 mL of a 10 mM Tris solution, and re-pelleted. Genomic DNA was isolated from the pelleted cells using a Gentra Genomic “Puregene” DNA isolation kit (Gentra Systems; Minneapolis, Minn.). Briefly, the pelleted cells were resuspended in 1 mL Gentra Cell Suspension Solution to which 14.2 mg of lysozyme and 4 μL, of 20 mg/mL proteinase K solution was added. The cell suspension was incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The precipitated genomic DNA was recovered by centrifugation at 3500×g for 25 minutes and air-dried for 10 minutes. The genomic DNA was suspended in 300 μL, of a 10 mM Tris solution and stored at 4° C.

The genomic DNA was used as a template in PCR amplification reactions with primers designed based on conserved domains of crotonase homologs and a Chloroflexus aurantiacus codon usage table. Briefly, two degenerate forward (CRF1 and CRF2) and three degenerate reverse (CRR1, CRR2, and CRR3) PCR primers were designed (CRF1 5′-AAYCGBCCVAARGCNCTSAAYGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:77; CRF2: 5′-TTYGTBGCNGGYGCNGAYAT-3′, SEQ ID NO:78; CRR1 5′-ATRTCNGCRCCNGCVACRAA-3′, SEQ ID NO:79; CRR2 5′-CCRCCRCCSAGNGCRWARCCRTT-3′, SEQ ID NO:80; and CRR3 5′-SSWNGCRATVCGRATRTCRAC-3′, SEQ ID NO:81).

These primers were used in all logical combinations in PCR using Taq polymerase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.) and 1 ng of the genomic DNA per μL reaction mix. The PCR was conducted using a touchdown PCR program with 4 cycles at an annealing temperature of 61° C., 4 cycles at 59° C., 4 cycles at 57° C., 4 cycles at 55° C., and 16 cycles at 52° C. Each cycle used an initial 30-second denaturing step at 94° C. and a 3-minute extension step at 72° C. The program also had an initial denaturing step for 2 minutes at 94° C. and a final extension step of 4 minutes at 72° C.

The time allowed for annealing was 45 seconds. The amounts of PCR primer used in the reaction were increased 4-12 fold above typical PCR amounts depending on the amount of degeneracy in the 3′ end of the primer. In addition, separate PCR reactions containing each individual primer were performed to identify amplification products resulting from single degenerate primers. Each PCR product (25 μL) was separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE (Tris-acetate-EDTA) agarose gel.

The CRF1-CRR1 and CRF2-CRR2 combinations produced a unique band of about 120 and about 150 bp, respectively. These bands matched the expected size based on crotonase genes from other species. No 120 bp or 150 bp band was observed from individual primer control reactions. Both fragments (i.e., the 120 bp and 150 bp bands) were isolated and purified using the Qiagen Gel Extraction kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). Each purified fragment (4 μL) was ligated into pCRII vector that then was transformed into TOP10 E. coli cells by a heat-shock method using a TOPO cloning procedure (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Transformations were plated on LB media containing 100 μg/mL of ampicillin (Amp) and 50 μg/mL of 5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl-B-D-Galactopyranoside (X-gal). Single, white colonies were plated onto fresh media and screened in a PCR reaction using the CRF1 and CRR1 primers and the CRF2 and CRR2 primers to confirm the presence of the desired insert. Plasmid DNA was obtained from multiple colonies with the desired insert using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen, Inc.). Once obtained, the DNA was quantified and used for DNA sequencing with M13R and M13F primers. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of two different clones from the PCR product of about 150 bp. Each shared sequence similarity with crotonase and hydratase sequences. The two clones were designated OS17 (157 bp PCR product) and OS19 (151 bp PCR product).

Genome walking was performed to obtain the complete coding sequence of OS17. Briefly, primers for conducting genome walking in both upstream and downstream directions were designed using the portion of the 157 bp 2CRF2-CRR2 fragment sequence that was internal to the CRF2 and CRR2 degenerate primers (OS17F1 5′-CGCTG-ATATTCGCCAGTTGCTCGAAG-3′, SEQ ID NO:82; OS17F2 5′-CCCATCTTG-CTTTCCGCAAGATTGAGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:83; OS17F3 5′-CAATGGCCCTGCCGA-ATAACGCCCATCT-3′, SEQ ID NO:84; OS17R1 5′-CTTCGAGCAACTGGCGAA-TATCAGCG-3′, SEQ ID NO:85; OS1782 5′-GCTCAATCTTGCGGAAAGCAAG-ATGGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:86; and OS17R3 5′-AGATGsGGCGTTATTCGGCAGGGCC-ATTG-3′, SEQ ID NO:87). The OS17F1, OS17F3, and OS17F2 primers face downstream, while the OS17R2, OS17R3, and OS17R1 primers face upstream.

Genome walking was conducted using the Universal Genome Walking kit (ClonTech Laboratories, Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.) with the exception that additional libraries were generated with enzymes Nru I, Fsp I, and Hinc II. The first round PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler with 7 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 36 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 66° C. with a final extension at 66° C. for 4 minutes. Second round PCR used 5 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 72° C., and 20 cycles of 2 seconds at 94° C. and 3 minutes at 66° C. with a final extension at 66° C. for 4 minutes. The first and second round amplification product (5 μL) was separated by gel electrophoresis on a 1% TAE agarose gel. After the second round PCR, an amplification product of about 0.4 kb was obtained with the Fsp I library using the OS17R1 primer in the reverse direction, and an amplification product of about 0.6 kb was obtained with the Hinc II library using the OS17F2 primer in the forward direction. These PCR products were cloned and sequenced.

Sequence analysis revealed that the sequences derived from genome walking overlapped with the CRF2-CRR2 fragment and shared sequence similarity with crotonase and hydratase sequences.

A second genome walking was performed to obtain additional sequences. Six primers were designed for this second genome walk (OS17F4 5′-AAGCTGGG-TCTGATCGATGCCATTGCTACC-3′, SEQ ID NO:88; OS17F5 5′-CTCGATTATCG-CCCATCCACGTATCGAG-3′, SEQ ID NO:89; OS17F6 5′-TGGATGCAATCCG-CTATGGCATTATCCACG-3′, SEQ ID NO:90; OS17R45′-TCATTCAGTGCG-TTCACCGGCGGATTTGTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:91; OS17R55′-TCGATCCGGAAGT-AGCGATAGCGTTCGATG-3′, SEQ ID NO:92; and OS17R6 5′-CTTGGCTGCAAT-CTCTTCGAGCACTTCAGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:93). The OS17F4, OS17F5, and OS17F6 primers faced downstream, while the OS17R4, OS17R5, and OS17R6 primers faced upstream.

The second genome walk was performed using the same methods described for the first genome walk. After the second round of walking, an amplification product of about 2.3 kb was obtained with a Hinc II library using the OS17R5 primer in the reverse direction, and an amplification product of about 0.6 kb was obtained with a Pvu II library using the OS17F5 primer in the forward direction. The PCR products were cloned and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed that the sequences derived from the second genome walking overlapped with the sequence obtained during the first genome walking. In addition, the sequence analysis revealed a sequence with 3572 bp.

A BLAST search revealed that the polypeptide encoded by this sequence shares sequence similarity with polypeptides having three different activities. Specifically, the beginning of the OS17 encoded-polypeptide shares sequence similarity with CoA-synthesases, the middle region of the OS17 encoded-polypeptide shares sequence similarity with enoyl-CoA hydratases, and the end region of the OS17 encoded-polypeptide shares sequence similarity with CoA-reductases.

A third genome walk was performed using four primers (OS17UP-6 5′-CATCAGAGGTAATCACCACTCGTGCA-3′, SEQ ID NO:94; OS17UP-7 5′-AAGTAGTAGGCCACCTCGTCGCCATA-3′, SEQ ID NO:95; OS17DN-1 5′-GCCAATCAGGCGCTGATCTATGTTCT-3′, SEQ ID NO:96; and OS17DN-2 5′-CTGATCTATGTTCTGGCCTCGGAGGT-3′, SEQ ID NO:97). The OS17UP-6 and OS17UP-7 primers face upstream, while the OS17DN-1 and OS17DN-2 primers face downstream. The third genome walk yielded an amplification product of about 1.2 kb with a Nru I library using the OS17UP-7 primer in the reverse direction. In addition, amplification products of about 4 kb and about 1.1 kb were obtained with a Hinc II and Fsp I library, respectively, using the OS17DN-2 primer in the forward direction. Sequence analysis revealed a nucleic acid sequence encoding a polypeptide (FIGS. 27-28). The complete OS17 gene had 5466 nucleotides and encoded a 1822 amino acid polypeptide. The calculated molecular weight of the OS17 polypeptide from the sequence was 201,346 (pI=5.71).

A BLAST search analysis revealed that the product of the OS17 nucleic acid has three different activities based on sequence similarity to (1) CoA-synthesases at the beginning of the OS17 sequence, (2) 3-HP dehydratases in the middle of the OS17 sequence, and (3) CoA-reductases at the end of the OS17 sequence. Thus, the OS17 clone appeared to encode a single enzyme capable of catalyzing three distinct reactions leading to the direct conversion of 3-hydroxypropionate to propionyl CoA: 3-HP→3-HP-CoA acrylyl-CoA→propionyl-CoA.

The OS17 gene from C. aurantiacus was PCR amplified from chromosomal DNA using the following conditions: 94° C. for 3 minutes; 25 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds to denature, 54° C. for 30 seconds to anneal, and 68° C. for 6 minutes for extension; followed by 68° C. for 10 minutes for final extension. Two primers were used (OS17F 5′-GGGAATTCCATATGATCGACACTGCG-3′, SEQ ID NO:136; and OS17R 5′-CGAAGGATCCAACGATAATCGGCTCAGCAC-3 SEQ ID NO:137). The resulting PCR product (˜5.6 Kb) was purified using Qiagen PCR purification kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). The purified product was digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes, heated at 80° C. for 20 minutes to inactivate the enzymes, purified using Qiagen PCR purification kit, and ligated into a pET11a vector (Novagen, Madison, Wis.) previously digested with NdeI and BamHI enzymes. The ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.) that were spread on LB agar plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. Individual transformants were screened by PCR amplification of the OS17 DNA with the OS17F and OS17R primers and conditions as described above directly from colonies cells. Clones that yielded the 5.6 Kb product were used for plasmid purification with Qiagen QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen, Inc). Resulting plasmids were transformed into E. coli BL21(DE3) cells, and OS17 polypeptide expression induced. The apparent molecular weight of the OS17 polypeptide according to SDS gel electrophoresis was about 190,000 Da.

To assay OS17 polypeptide function, a 100 mL culture of BL2′-DE3/pET11a-OS17 cells was started using 1 mL of overnight grown culture as an inoculum. The culture was grown to an OD of 0.5-0.6 and was induced with 100 μM IPTG. After two and a half hours of induction, the cells were harvested by spinning at 8000 rpm in the floor centrifuge. The cells were washed with 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.8) and passed twice through a French Press at a gauge pressure of 1000 psi. The cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 15,000 rpm. The activity of the OS17 polypeptide was measured spectrophotometrically, and the products formed during this enzymatic transformation were detected by LC/MS. The assay mix was as follows (J. Bacteriol., 181:1088-1098 (1999)):

Reagent Volume Final Conc. Tris-HCl (1000 mM, 7.8 pH) 10 μL 50 mM MgCl₂ (100 mM) 10 μL 5 mM ATP (30 mM) 20 μL 3 mM KCl (100 mM) 20 μL 10 mM CoASH (5 mM) 20 μL 0.5 mM NAD(P)H 20 μL 0.5 mM 3-hydroxypropionate 2 μL 1 mM Protein extract (7 mg/mL) 20 (40) μL 140 μg DI water 78 (58) μL Total 200 μL

The initial rate of reaction was measured by monitoring the disappearance of NAD(P)H at 340 nm. The activity of the OS17 polypeptide was measured using 3-HP as the substrate. The units/mL of total protein was calculated using the formula set forth in Example 1. The activity of the expressed OS17 polypeptide was calculated to be 0.061 U/mL of total protein. The reaction products were purified using a Sep Pak Vac column (Waters). The column was conditioned with 1 mL methanol and washed two times with 0.5 mL 0.1% TFA. The sample was then applied to the column, and the column was washed two more times with 0.5 mL 0.1% TFA. The sample was eluted with 200 μL of 40% acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA. The acetonitrile was removed from the sample by vacuum centrifugation. The reaction products were analyzed by LC/MS.

Analyses of thioesters namely propionyl CoA, acrylyl CoA, and 3 HP CoA from the above reaction were carried out using a Waters/Micromass ZQ LC/MS instrument which had a Waters 2690 liquid chromatograph with a Waters 996 Photo-Diode Array (PDA) placed in series between the chromatograph and the single quadropole mass spectrometer. LC separations were made using a 4.6×150 mm YMC ods-AQ (3 μm particles, 120 Å pores) reversed-phase chromatography column at room temperature. CoA esters were eluted in Buffer A (25 mM ammonium acetate, 0.5% acetic acid) with a linear gradient of buffer B (acetonitrile, 0.5% acetic acid). A flow rate of 0.25 mL/minute was used, and photodiode array UV absorbance was monitored from 200 to 400 nm. All parameters of the electrospray MS system were optimized and selected based on generation of protonated molecular ions ([M+H]⁺) of the analytes of interest and production of characteristic fragment ions. The following instrumental parameters were used for ESI-MS detection of CoA and organic acid-CoA thioesters in the positive ion mode; Extractor: 1 V; RF lens: 0 V; Source temperature: 100° C.; Desolvation temperature: 300° C.; Desolvation gas: 500 L/hour; Cone gas: 40 L/hour; Low mass resolution: 13.0; High mass resolution: 14.5; Ion energy: 0.5; Multiplier: 650. Uncertainties for mass charge ratios (m/z) and molecular masses are ±0.01%.

The enzyme assay mix from strains expressing the OS17 polypeptide exhibited peaks for propionyl CoA, acrylyl CoA, and 3-HP CoA with the propionyl CoA peak being the dominant peak. These peaks where missing in the enzyme assay mix obtained from the control strain, which carried vector pET11a without an insert. These results indicate that the OS17 polypeptide has CoA synthetase activity, CoA hydratase activity, and dehydrogenase activity.

Genome walking also was performed to obtain the complete coding sequence of OS19. Briefly, primers for conducting genome walking in both upstream and downstream directions were designed using the portion of the 151 bp CRF2-CRR2 fragment sequence that was internal to the CRF2 and CRR2 degenerate primers (OS19F1 5′-GGCTGATATCAAAGCGATGGCCAATGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:98; OS19F2 5′-CCAC-GCCTATTGATATGCTCACCAGTG-3′, SEQ ID NO:99; OS19F3 5′-GCAAACCGG-TGATTGCTGCCGTGAATGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:100; OS19R1 5′-GCATTGGCCAT-CGCTTTGATATCAGCC-3′, SEQ ID NO:101; OS19R2 5′-CACTGGTGAGCATATC-AATAGGCGTGG-3 SEQ ID NO:102; and OS19R3 5′-CCATTCACGGCAGCAA-TCACCGGTTTGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:103). The OS19F1, OS19F2, and OS19F3 primers face downstream, while the OS19R1, OS19R2, and OS19R3 primers face upstream.

An amplification product of about 0.25 kb was obtained with the Fsp I library using the OS19R1 primer, while an amplification product of about 0.65 kb was obtained with the Pvu II library using the OS19R1 primer. In addition, an amplification product of about 0.4 kb was obtained with the Pvu II library using the OS19F3 primer. The PCR products were cloned and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed that the sequences derived from genome walking overlapped with the CRF2-CRR2 fragment and shared sequence similarity with crotonase and hydratase sequences. The obtained sequences accounted for most of the coding sequence including the start codon.

A second genome walk was performed to obtain additional sequence using two primers (OS19F7 5′-TCATCATCGCCAGTGAAAACGCGCAGTTCG-3′, SEQ ID NO:104 and OS19F8 5′-GGATCGCGCAAACCATTGCCACCAAATCAC-3′, SEQ ID NO:105). The OS19F7 and OS19F8 primers face downstream.

An amplification product (about 0.7 kb) obtained from the Pvu II library was cloned and sequenced. Sequence analysis revealed that the sequence derived from the second genome walk overlapped with the sequence obtained from the first genome walk and contained the stop codon. The full-length OS19 clone was found to share sequence similarity with other sequences such as crotonase and enoyl-CoA hydratase sequences (FIGS. 32-33).

The OS19 clone was found to encode a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity also referred to as acrylyl-CoA hydratase activity. The nucleic acid encoding the OS19 dehydratase from C. aurantiacus was PCR amplified from chromosomal DNA using the following conditions: 94° C. for 3 minutes; 25 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds to denature, 56° C. for 30 seconds to anneal, and 68° C. for 1 minute for extension; and 68° C. for 5 minutes for final extension. Two primers were used (OSACH3 5′-ATGAGTGAAGAGTCTCTGGTTCTCAGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:106 and OSACH2 5′-AGATCGCAATCGCTCGTGTATGTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:107).

The resulting PCR product (about 1.2 kb) was separated by agarose gel electrophoresis and purified using Qiagen PCR purification kit (Qiagen Inc.; Valencia, Calif.). The purified product was ligated into pETBlue-1 using the Perfectly Blunt cloning Kit (Novagen; Madison, Wis.). The ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.) that then were spread on LB agar plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin, 40 μg/mL IPTG, and 40 μg/mL X-Gal. White colonies were isolated and screened for the presence of inserts by restriction mapping. Isolates with the correct restriction pattern were sequenced from each end using the primer pETBlueUP and pETBlueDOWN (Novagen) to confirm the sequence at the ligation points.

The plasmid containing the OS19 dehydratase-encoding sequence was transformed into Tuner (DE3) pLacI chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.), and expression from the construct tested. Briefly, a culture was grown overnight to saturation and diluted 1:20 the following morning in fresh LB medium with the appropriate antibiotics. The culture was grown at 37° C. and 250 rpm to an OD₆₀₀ of about 0.6. At this point, the culture was induced with IPTG at a final concentration of 1 mM. The culture was incubated for an additional two hours at 37° C. and 250 rpm. Aliquots were taken pre-induction and 2 hours post-induction for SDS-PAGE analysis. A band of the expected molecular weight (27,336 Daltons predicted from the sequence) was observed. This band was not observed in cells containing a plasmid lacking the nucleic acid encoding the hydratase.

Cell free extracts were prepared by growing cells as described above. The cells were harvested by centrifugation and disrupted by sonication. The sonicated cell suspension was centrifuged to remove cell debris, and the supernatant was used in the assays. The ability of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase to perform the following three reactions was measured using MALDI-TOF MS:

1) acrylyl-CoA→3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA

2) 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA→acrylyl-CoA

3) crotonyl-CoA→3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA

The assay mixture contained 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5), 1 mM CoA ester, and about 1 μg cell free extract. Reactions were allowed to proceed at room temperature and were stopped by adding 1 volume 10% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The reaction mixtures were purified prior to MALDI-TOF MS analysis using Sep Pak Vac C₁₈ 50 mg columns (Waters, Inc.). The columns were conditioned with 1 mL methanol and then equilibrated with two washes of 1 mL 0.1% TFA. The sample was applied to the column, and the flow through was discarded. The column was washed twice with 1 mL 0.1% TFA. The sample was eluted in 200 μL 40% acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA. The acetonitrile was removed by centrifugation in vacuo. Samples were prepared for MALDI-TOF MS analysis by mixing 1:1 with 110 mM sinapinic acid in 0.1% TFA, 67% acetonitrile. The samples were allowed to air dry.

The conversion of acrylyl-CoA into 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA catalyzed by the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase was detected using the MALDI-TOF MS technique. In reaction #1, the control sample exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to acrylyl-CoA (MW 823). The reaction #1 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding plasmid exhibited a dominant peak corresponding to 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA (MW 841). This result demonstrates that the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity catalyzes reaction #1.

To detect the conversion of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA into acrylyl-CoA, reaction #2 was carried out in 80% D₂O. The reaction #2 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding plasmid revealed incorporation of deuterium in the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA molecule. This result indicates that the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase enzyme catalyzes reaction #2. In addition, the results from both #1 and #2 reactions indicate that the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase enzyme can catalyze the 3-hydroxypropinyl-CoA acrylyl-CoA reaction in both directions. It is noted that for both the #1 and #2 reactions, a peak was observed at MW 811, due to leftover acetyl-CoA from the synthesis of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA from 3-hydroxypropionate and acetyl-CoA.

The assays assessing conversion of crotonyl-CoA into 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA also were carried out in 80% D₂O. In reaction #3, the control sample exhibited a dominant peak at a molecular weight corresponding to crotonyl-CoA (MW 837). This result indicated that the crotonyl-CoA was not converted into other products. The reaction #3 sample containing the cell extract from cells transfected with the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding plasmid exhibited a diffuse group of peaks corresponding to deuterated 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (MW 855 to MW 857). This result demonstrates that the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity catalyzes reaction #3.

A series of control reactions were performed to confirm the specificity of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase. Lactyl-CoA (1 mM) was added to the reaction mixture containing 100 mM Tris (pH 7.0) both in the presence and the absence of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase. In both cases, the dominant peak observed had a molecular weight corresponding to lactyl-CoA (MW 841). This result indicates that lactyl-CoA is not affected by the presence of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity even in the presence of D₂O meaning that the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase enzyme does not attach a hydroxyl group at the alpha carbon position. The presence of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA in an 80% D₂O reaction mixture resulted in a shift upon addition of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. In the absence of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity, a peak corresponding to 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA was observed in addition to a peak of MW 811. The MW 811 peak was due to leftover acetyl-CoA from the synthesis of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA. In the presence of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity, a peak corresponding to deuterated 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA was observed (MW 842) due to exchange of a hydroxyl group during the conversion of 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA to acrylyl-CoA and visa-versa. These control reactions demonstrate that the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase enzyme is active on 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA and not active on lactyl-CoA. In addition, these results demonstrate that the product of the acrylyl-CoA reaction is 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA not lactyl-CoA.

Example 4 Construction of Operon #1

The following operon was constructed and can be used to produce 3-HP in E. coli (FIG. 34). Briefly, the operon was cloned into a pET-11a expression vector under the control of a T7 promoter (Novagen, Madison, Wis.). The pET-11a expression vector is a 5677 bp plasmid that uses the ATG sequence of an NdeI restriction site as a start codon for inserted downstream sequences.

Nucleic acid molecules encoding a CoA transferase and a lactyl-CoA dehydratase were amplified from Megasphaera elsdenii genomic DNA by PCR. Two primers were used to amplify the CoA transferase-encoding sequence (OSNBpctF 5′-GGGAATTCC-ATATGAGAAAAGTAGAAATCATTACAGCTG-3′, SEQ ID NO:108 and OSCTE-2 5′-GAGAGTATACACAGTTTTCACCTCCTTTACAGCAGAGAT-3′, SEQ ID NO:109), and two primers were used to amplify the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSCTE-1 5′-ATCTCTGCTGTAAAGGAGGTGAAAACTGTGTATACT-CTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:110 and OSEBH-2 5′-ACGTTGATCTCCTTGTACATT-AGAGGATTTCCGAGAAAGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:111). A nucleic acid molecule encoding a 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase was amplified from Chloroflexus aurantiacus genomic DNA of by PCR using two primers (OSEBH-1 5′-GCTTTCTCGG-AAATCCTCTAATGTACAAGGAGATCAACGT-3′, SEQ ID NO:112 and OSHBR 5′-CGACGGATCCTCAACGACCACTGAAGTTGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:113).

PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler using 100 ng of genomic DNA and a mix of rTth polymerase (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, Calif.) and Pfu Turbo polymerase (Stratagene; La Jolla, Calif.) in 8:1 ratio. The polymerase mix ensured higher fidelity of the PCR reaction. The following PCR conditions were used: initial denaturation step of 94° C. for 2 minutes; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 2 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes. The obtained PCR products were gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Inc.; Valencia, Calif.).

The CoA transferase, lactyl-CoA dehydratase (E1, E2 α subunit, and E2 β subunit), and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase PCR products were assembled using PCR. The OSCTE-1 and OSCTE-2 primers as well as the OSEBH-1 and OSEBH-2 primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the complementary DNA ends could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSNBpctF and OSHBR) were added to the assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of each PCR product (i.e., the PCR products from the CoA-transferase, lactyl-CoA dehydratase, and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase reactions) as well as the rTth polymerase/Pfu Turbo polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 25 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 55° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 6 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 7 minutes. The assembled PCR product was gel purified and digested with restriction enzymes (NdeI and BamHI). The sites for these restriction enzymes were introduced into the assembled PCR product using the OSNBpctF (NdeI) and OSHBR (BamHI) primers. The digested PCR product was heated at 80° C. for 30 minutes to inactive the restriction enzymes and used directly for ligation into pET-11a vector.

The pET-11a vector was digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes, gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.) and used in a ligation reaction with the assembled PCR product. The ligation was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The resulting ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen; Madison, Wis.) using a heat-shock method. Once heat shocked, the cells were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.) and analyzed by digestion with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes.

Example 5 Construction of Operon #2

The following operon was constructed and can be used to produce 3-HP in E. coli (FIGS. 35A and B). Nucleic acid molecules encoding a CoA transferase and a lactyl-CoA dehydratase were amplified from Megasphaera elsdenii genomic DNA by PCR. Two primers were used to amplify the CoA transferase-encoding sequence (OSNBpctF and OSCTE-2), and two primers were used to amplify the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSCTE-1 and OSNBe1R 5′-CGACGGATCCTTAGAGGATTT-CCGAGAAAGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:114). A nucleic acid molecule encoding a 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase was amplified from Chloroflexus aurantiacus genomic DNA of by PCR using two primers (OSXNhF 5′-GGTGTCT-AGAGACAGTCCTGTCGTTTATGTAGAAGGAG-3′, SEQ ID NO:115 and OSXNhR 5′-GGGAATTCCATATGCGTAACTTCCTCCTGCTATCAACGACCACTGAA-GTTGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:116).

PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler using 100 ng of genomic DNA and a mix of rTth polymerase (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, Calif.) and Pfu Turbo polymerase (Stratagene; La Jolla, Calif.) in 8:1 ratio. The polymerase mix ensured higher fidelity of the PCR reaction. The following PCR conditions were used: initial denaturation step of 94° C. for 2 minutes; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 2 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes. The obtained PCR products were gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Inc.; Valencia, Calif.).

The CoA transferase and lactyl-CoA dehydratase (E1, E2 α subunit, and E2 β subunit) PCR products were assembled using PCR. The OSCTE-1 and OSCTE-2 primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the 22 nucleotides at the end of the CoA transferase sequence and the 22 nucleotides at the beginning of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSNBpctF and OSNBe1R) were added to the assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of the CoA transferase PCR product, 100 ng of lactyl-CoA dehydratase PCR product, and the rTth polymerase/Pfu Turbo polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 5 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 6 minutes.

The assembled PCR product was gel purified and digested with restriction enzymes (NdeI and BamHI). The sites for these restriction enzymes were introduced into the assembled PCR product using the OSNBpctF (NdeI) and OSNBe1R (BamHI) primers. The digested PCR product was heated at 80° C. for 30 minutes to inactive the restriction enzymes and used directly for ligation into a pET-11a vector.

The pET-11a vector was digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes, gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.) and used in a ligation reaction with the assembled PCR product. The ligation was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The resulting ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen; Madison, Wis.) using a heat-shock method. Once heat shocked, the cells were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.) and analyzed by digestion with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes. The digest revealed that the DNA fragment containing CoA transferase-encoding and lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequences was cloned into the pET-11a vector.

The plasmid carrying the CoA transferase-encoding and lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequences (pTD) was digested with XbaI and NdeI restriction enzymes, gel purified, and used for cloning the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding product upstream of the CoA transferase-encoding sequence. Since this XbaI and NdeI digest eliminated a ribosome-binding site (RBS) from the pET-11a vector, a new homologous RBS was cloned into the plasmid together with the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding product. Briefly, the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding PCR product was digested with XbaI and NdeI restriction enzymes, heated at 65° C. for 30 minutes to inactivate the restriction enzymes, and ligated into pTD. The ligation mixture was transformed into chemically competent NovaBlue cells (Novagen) that then were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin.

Individual colonies were selected, and the plasmid DNA obtained using a Qiagen Spin Miniprep Kit. The obtained plasmids were digested with XbaI and NdeI restriction enzymes and analyzed by gel electrophoresis. pTD plasmids containing the inserted 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding PCR product were named pHTD. While expression of the lactyl-CoA hydratase, CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase sequences from pHTD was directed by a single T7 promoter, each coding sequence had an individual RBS upstream of their start codon.

To ensure the correct assembly and cloning of the lactyl-CoA hydratase, CoA transferase, and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase sequences into one operon, both ends of the operon and all junctions between the coding sequences were sequenced. This DNA analysis revealed that the operon was assembled correctly.

The pHTD plasmid was transformed into BL21(DE3) cells to study the expression of the encoded sequences.

Example 6 Construction of Operons #3 and #4

Operon #3 (FIGS. 36A and B) and operon #4 (FIGS. 37A and B) each position the E1 activator at the end of the operon. Operon #3 contains a RBS between the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence and the E1 activator-encoding sequence. In operon #4, however, the stop codon of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence is fused with the start codon of the E1 activator-encoding sequence as follows: TAGTG. The absence of the RBS in operon #4 can decrease the level of E1 activator expression.

To construct operon #3, nucleic acid molecules encoding a CoA transferase and a lactyl-CoA dehydratase were amplified from Megasphaera elsdenii genomic DNA by PCR. Two primers were used to amplify the CoA transferase-encoding sequence

(OSNBpctF and OSHTR 5′-ACGTTGATCTCCTTCTACATTATTTTTTCAGT-CCCATG-3′, SEQ ID NO:117), two primers were used to amplify the E2 α and β subunits of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSEIIXNF 5′-GGTGTCTAGAGTCAAAGGAGAGAACAAAATCATGAGTG-3′, SEQ ID NO:118 and OSEIIXNR 5′-GGGAATTCCATATGCGTAACTTCCTCCTGCTATTAGAGGA-TTTCCGAGAAAGC-3′, SEQ ID NO:119), and two primers were used to amplify the E1 activator of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSHrEIF 5′-TCAGTG-GTCGTTGATCACGCTATAAAGAAAGGTGAAAACTGTGTATACTCTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:120 and OSEIBR 5′-CGACGGATCCCTTCCTTGGAGCTCATGCTTTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:121). A nucleic acid molecule encoding a 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase was amplified from Chloroflexus aurantiacus genomic DNA of by PCR using two primers (OSTHF 5′-CATGGGACTGAAAAAATAATGTAGAAGGAGAT-CAACGT-3′, SEQ ID NO:122 and OSEIrHR 5′-GAGAGTATACACAGTTTTCA-CCTTTCTTTATAGCGTGATCAACGACCACTGA-3′, SEQ ID NO:123).

PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler using 100 ng of genomic DNA and a mix of rTth polymerase (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, Calif.) and Pfu Turbo polymerase (Stratagene; La Jolla, Calif.) in 8:1 ratio. The polymerase mix ensured higher fidelity of the PCR reaction. The following PCR conditions were used: initial denaturation step of 94° C. for 2 minutes; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 2 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes. The obtained PCR products were gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Inc.; Valencia, Calif.).

The 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase and E1 activator PCR products were assembled using PCR. The OSHrE1F and OSEIrHR primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the primers could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSTHF and OSE1BR) were added to the assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase PCR product, 100 ng of E1 activator PCR product, and the rTth polymerase/Pfu Turbo polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 1.5 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes.

The assembled PCR product was gel purified and used in a second assembly PCR with gel purified the CoA transferase PCR product. The OSTHF and OSHTR primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the complementary DNA ends could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSNBpctF and OSEIBR) were added to the second assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of the purified 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase/E1 PCR assembly, 100 ng of the purified CoA transferase PCR product, and the polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 3 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes.

The assembled PCR product was gel purified and digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes. The sites for these restriction enzymes were introduced into the assembled PCR products with the OSNBpctF (NdeI) and OSEIBR (BamHI) primers. The digested PCR product was heated at 80° C. for 30 minutes to inactive the restriction enzymes and used directly for ligation into a pET11a vector.

The pET-11a vector was digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes, gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.) and used in a ligation reaction with the assembled PCR product. The ligation was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The resulting ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen; Madison, Wis.) using a heat-shock method. Once heat shocked, the cells were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc.; Valencia, Calif.). The resulting plasmids carrying the CoA transferase, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase, and E1 activator sequences (pTHrEI) were digested with XbaI and NdeI, purified using gel electrophoresis and a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, and used as a vector for cloning of the E2 α subunit/E2 β subunit PCR product.

The E2 α subunit/E2 β subunit PCR product was digested with the same enzymes and ligated into the pTHrEI vector. The ligation reaction was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The ligation mixture was transformed into chemically competent NovaBlue cells (Novagen) that then were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.) and digested with XbaI and NdeI restriction enzymes for gel electrophoresis analysis. The resulting plasmids carrying the constructed operon #3 (pEIITHrEI) were transformed into BL21(DE3) cells to study the expression of the cloned sequences. Electrospray mass spectrometry assay confirmed that extracts from these cells have CoA transferase activity and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. Similar assays are used to confirm that extracts from these cells also have lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity.

To construct operon #4, nucleic acid molecules encoding a CoA transferase and a lactyl-CoA dehydratase were amplified from Megasphaera elsdenii genomic DNA by PCR. Two primers were used to amplify the CoA transferase-encoding sequence (OSNBpctF and OSHTR), two primers were used to amplify the E2 α and β subunits of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSEIIXNF and OSEIIXNR), and two primers were used to amplify the E1 activator of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSHEIF 5′-CCAACTTCAGTGGTCGTTAGTGAAAACTGTGTAT-ACTCTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:124 and OSEIBR). A nucleic acid molecule encoding a 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase was amplified from Chloroflexus aurantiacus genomic DNA of by PCR using two primers (OSTHF and OSEIHR 5′-GAGAGTATACACAGTTTTCACTAACGACCACTGAAGTTGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:125).

PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler using 100 ng of genomic DNA and a mix of rTth polymerase (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, Calif.) and Pfu Turbo polymerase (Stratagene; La Jolla, Calif.) in 8:1 ratio. The polymerase mix ensured higher fidelity of the PCR reaction. The following PCR conditions were used: initial denaturation step of 94° C. for 2 minutes; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 2 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes. The obtained PCR products were gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Inc.; Valencia, Calif.).

The 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase and E1 activator PCR products were assembled using PCR. The OSHEIF and OSEIHR primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the primers could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSTHF and OSE1BR) were added to the assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase PCR product, 100 ng of E1 activator PCR product, and the rTth polymerase/Pfu Turbo polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 1.5 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes.

The assembled PCR product was gel purified and used in a second assembly PCR with gel purified the CoA transferase PCR product. The OSTHF and OSHTR primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the complementary DNA ends could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSNBpctF and OSEIBR) were added to the second assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of the purified 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase/EI PCR assembly, 100 ng of the purified CoA transferase PCR product, and the polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 3 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes.

The assembled PCR product was gel purified and digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes. The sites for these restriction enzymes were introduced into the assembled PCR products with the OSNBpctF (NdeI) and OSEIBR (BamHI) primers. The digested PCR product was heated at 80° C. for 30 minutes to inactive the restriction enzymes and used directly for ligation into a pET11a vector.

The pET-11a vector was digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes, gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.) and used in a ligation reaction with the assembled PCR product. The ligation was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The resulting ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen; Madison, Wis.) using a heat-shock method. Once shocked, the cells were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). The resulting plasmids carrying the CoA transferase, 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase, and EI activator sequences (pTHE1) were digested with XbaI and NdeI, purified using gel electrophoresis and a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, and used as a vector for cloning of the E2 α subunit/E2 β subunit PCR product.

The E2 α subunit/E2 β subunit PCR product was digested with the same enzymes and ligated into the pTHE1 vector. The ligation reaction was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianwapolis, Ind.). The ligation mixture was transformed into chemically competent NovaBlue cells (Novagen) that then were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.) and digested with XbaI and NdeI restriction enzymes for gel electrophoresis analysis. The resulting plasmids carrying the constructed operon #4 (pEIITHEI) were transformed into BL21(DE3) cells to study the expression of the cloned sequences. Electrospray mass spectrometry assays confirmed that extracts from these cells have CoA transferase activity and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase activity. Similar assays are used to confirm that extracts from these cells also have lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity.

E. coli plasmid pEIITHrEI carrying a synthetic 3-HP operon was digested with NruI, XbaI and BamHI restriction enzymes, XbaI-BamHI DNA fragment was gel purified with Quagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Inc., Valencia Calif.) and used for further cloning into Bacillu vector pWH1520 (MoBiTec BmBH, Gottingen, Germany).

Vector pWH1520 was digested with SpeI and BamHI restriction enzymes and gel purified with Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit. The XbaI-BamHI fragment carrying 3-HP operon was ligated into WH1520 vector at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase. The ligation mixture was transformed into chemically competent TOP 10 cells and plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/ml carbenicillin. One clone named B. megaterium (pBPO26) was used for assays of CoA-transferase and CoA-hydratase activities. The assays were performed as described above for E. Coli. The enzymatic activity was 5 U/mg and 13 U/mg respectively.

Example 7 Construction of a Two Plasmid System

The following constructs were constructed and can be used to produce 3-HP in E. coli (FIGS. 38A and B). Nucleic acid molecules encoding a CoA transferase and a lactyl-CoA dehydratase were amplified from Megasphaera elsdenii genomic DNA by PCR. Two primers were used to amplify the CoA transferase-encoding sequence (OSNBpctF and OSHTR), two primers were used to amplify the E2 α and β subunits of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (OSEIIXNF and OSEIIXNR), and two primers were used to amplify the E1 activator of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase-encoding sequence (E1PROF 5′-GTCGCAGAATTCCCATCAATCGCAGCAATCCCAAC-3 SEQ ID NO:126 and E1PROR 5′-TAACATGGTACCGACAGAAGCGGACCAGCA-AACGA-3′, SEQ ID NO:127). A nucleic acid molecule encoding a 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase was amplified from Chloroflexus aurantiacus genomic DNA of by PCR using two primers (OSTHF and OSHBR 5′-CGACGGATCCTCAACGACCA-CTGAAGTTGG-3′, SEQ ID NO:128).

PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 2400 Thermocycler using 100 ng of genomic DNA and a mix of rTth polymerase (Applied Biosystems; Foster City, Calif.) and Pfu Turbo polymerase (Stratagene; La Jolla, Calif.) in 8:1 ratio. The polymerase mix ensured higher fidelity of the PCR reaction. The following PCR conditions were used: initial denaturation step of 94° C. for 2 minutes; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 2 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes. The obtained PCR products were gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Inc.; Valencia, Calif.).

The CoA transferase PCR product and the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase PCR product were assembled using PCR. The OSTHF and OSHTR primers were complementary to each other. Thus, the complementary DNA ends could anneal to each other during the PCR reaction extending the DNA in both direction. To ensure the efficiency of the assembly, two end primers (OSNBpctF and OSHBR) were added to the assembly PCR mixture, which contained 100 ng of the purified CoA transferase PCR product, 100 ng of the purified 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase PCR product, and the polymerase mix described above. The following PCR conditions were used to assemble the products: 94° C. for 1 minute; 20 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 54° C. for 30 seconds, and 68° C. for 2.5 minutes; and a final extension at 68° C. for 5 minutes.

The assembled PCR product was gel purified and digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes. The sites for these restriction enzymes were introduced into the assembled PCR products with the OSNBpctF (NdeI) and OSHBR (BamHI) primers. The digested PCR product was heated at 80° C. for 30 minutes to inactive the restriction enzymes and used directly for ligation into a pET11a vector.

The pET-11a vector was digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes, gel purified using a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.) and used in a ligation reaction with the assembled PCR product. The ligation was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The resulting ligation reaction was transformed into NovaBlue chemically competent cells (Novagen; Madison, Wis.) using a heat-shock method. Once shocked, the cells were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc.; Valencia, Calif.) and digested with NdeI and BamHI restriction enzymes for gel electrophoresis analysis. The resulting plasmids carrying the CoA transferase and 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase (pTH) were digested with XbaI and NdeI, purified using gel electrophoresis and a Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, and used as a vector for cloning of the E2 α subunit/E2 β subunit PCR product.

The E2 α subunit/E2 β subunit PCR product digested with the same enzymes was ligated into the pTH vector. The ligation reaction was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The ligation mixture was transformed into chemically competent NovaBlue cells (Novagen) that then were plated on LB plates supplemented with 50 μg/mL carbenicillin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc.; Valencia, Calif.) and digested with XbaI and NdeI restriction enzymes for gel electrophoresis analysis. The resulting plasmids carrying the E2 α and β subunits of the lactyl-CoA dehydratase, the CoA transferase, and the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA dehydratase (pEIITH) were transformed into BL21(DE3) cells to study the expression of the cloned sequences.

The gel purified E1 activator PCR product was digested with EcoRI and KpnI restriction enzymes, heated at 65° C. for 30 minutes, and ligated into a vector (pPROLar.A) that was digested with EcoRI and KpnI restriction enzymes, gel purified using Qiagen Gel Extraction kit, and treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The ligation was performed at 16° C. overnight using T4 ligase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals; Indianapolis, Ind.). The resulting ligation reaction was transformed into DH10B electro-competent cells (Gibco Life Technologies; Gaithersburg, Md.) using electroporation. Once electroporated, the cells were plated on LB plates supplemented with 25 μg/mL kanamycin. The plasmid DNA was purified from individual colonies using a QiaPrep Spin Miniprep Kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.) and digested with EcoRI and KpnI restriction enzymes for gel electrophoresis analysis. The resulting plasmids carrying the E1 activator (pPROEI) are transformed into BL21(DE3) cells to study the expression of the cloned sequence.

The pPROEI and pEIITH plasmids are compatible plasmids that can be used in the same bacterial host cell. In addition, the expression from the pPROEI and pEIITH plasmids can be induced at different levels using IPTG and arabinose, allowing for the fine-tuning of the expression of the cloned sequences.

Example 8 Production of 3-HP

3-HP was produced using recombinant E. coli in a small-scale batch fermentation reaction. The construction of strain ALS848 (also designated as TA3476 (J. Bacteriol., 143:1081-1085 (1980))) that carried inducible T7 RNA polymerase was performed using λDE3 lysogenization kit (Novagen, Madison, Wis.) according to the manufacture's instructions. The constructed strain was designated ALS484(DE3). Strain ALS484(DE3) was transformed with pEIITHrEI plasmid using standard electroporation techniques. The transformants were selected on LB/carbenicillin (50 μg/mL) plates. A single colony was used to inoculate 4 mL culture in a 15 mL culture tube. Strain ALS484(DE3) strain carrying vector pET11a was used as a control. The cells were grown at 37° C. and 250 rpm in an Innova 4230 Incubator Shaker (New Brunswick Scientific, Edison, N.J.) for eight to nine hours. This culture (3 mL) was used to start an anaerobic fermentation. Two 100 mL anaerobic cultures of ALS(DE3)/pET11a and ALS(DE3)pEIITHrEI were grown in serum bottles using LB media supplemented with 0.4% glucose, 50 μg/mL carbenicillin, and 100 mM MOPS. The cultures were grown overnight at 37° C. without shaking. The overnight grown cultures were sub-cultured in serum bottles using fresh LB media supplemented with 0.4% glucose, 50 μg/mL carbenicillin, and 100 mM MOPS. The starting OD(600) of these cultures was adjusted to 0.3. These serum bottles were incubated at 37° C. without shaking After one hour of incubation, the cultures were induced with 100 μM IPTG. A 3 mL sample was taken from each of the serum bottles at 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 6 hours, 8 hours, and 24 hours. The samples were transferred into two properly labeled 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes, each containing 1.5 mL sample. The samples were spun down in a microcentrifuge centrifuge at 14000 g for 3 minutes. The supernatant was passed through a 0.45μ syringe filter, and the resulting filtrate was stored at −20° C. until further analysis. The formation of fermentation products, mainly lactate and 3-hydroxypropionate, was measured by detecting derivatized CoA esters of lactate and 3-HP using LC/MS.

The following methods were performed to convert lactate and 3-HP into their respective CoA esters. Briefly, the filtrates were mixed with CoA-reaction buffer (200 mM potassium phosphate buffer, 2 mM acetyl-CoA, and 0.1 mg/mL purified transferase) in 1:1 ratio. The reaction was allowed to proceed for 20 minutes at room temperature. The reaction was stopped by adding 1 volume of 10% TFA. The sample was purified using Sep Pak Vac columns (Waters). The column was conditioned with methanol and washed two times with 0.1% TFA. The sample was then applied to the column, and the column was washed two more times with 0.1% TFA. The sample was eluted with 40% acetonitrile, 0.1% TFA. The acetonitrile was removed from the sample by vacuum centrifugation. The samples were then analyzed by LC/MS.

Analysis of the standard CoA/CoA thioester mixtures and the CoA thioester mixtures derived from fermentation broths were carried out using a Waters/Micromass ZQ LC/MS instrument which had a Waters 2690 liquid chromatograph with a Waters 996 Photo-Diode Array (PDA) absorbance monitor placed in series between the chromatograph and the single quadrupole mass spectrometer. LC separations were made using a 4.6×150 mm YMC ODS-AQ (3 μm particles, 120 Å pores) reversed-phase chromatography column at room temperature. Two gradient elution systems were developed using different mobile phases for the separation of the CoA esters. These two systems are summarized in Table 3. Elution system 1 was developed to provide the most rapid and efficient separation of the five-component CoA/CoA thioester mixture (CoA, acetyl-CoA, lactyl-CoA, acrylyl-CoA, and propionyl-CoA), while elution system 2 was developed to provide baseline separation of the structurally isomeric esters lactyl-CoA and 3HP-CoA in addition to separation of the remaining esters listed above. In all cases, the flow rate was 0.250 mL/minute, and photodiode array UV absorbance was monitored from 200 nm to 400 nm. All parameters of the electrospray MS system were optimized and selected based on generation of protonated molecular ions ([M+H]⁺) of the analytes of interest and production of characteristic fragment ions. The following instrumental parameters were used for ESI-MS detection of CoA and organic acid-CoA thioesters in the positive ion mode: Capillary: 4.0 V; Cone: 56 V; Extractor: 1 V; RF lens: 0 V; Source temperature: 100° C.; Desolvation temperature: 300° C.; Desolvation gas: 500 L/hour; Cone gas: 40 L/hour; Low mass resolution: 13.0; High mass resolution: 14.5; Ion energy: 0.5; Multiplier: 650. Uncertainties for reported mass/charge ratios (m/z) and molecular masses are ±0.01%. Table 3 provides a summary of gradient elution systems for the separation of organic acid-Coenzyme A thioesters.

TABLE 3 Gradient Percent System Buffer A Buffer B Time B 1 25 mM ammonium acetate ACN 0 10 0.5% acetic acid 0.5% acetic acid 40 40 42 100 47 100 50 10 2 25 mM ammonium acetate ACN 0 10 10 mM TEA 0.5% acetic acid 10 10 0.5% acetic acid 45 60 50 100 53 100 54 10

The following methods were used to separate the derivatized 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA, which was formed from 3-HP, from 2-hydroxypropionyl-CoA (i.e., lactyl-CoA), which was formed from lactate. Because these structural isomers have identical masses and mass spectral fragmentation behavior, the separation and identification of these analytes in a mixture depends on their chromatographic separation. While elution system 1 provided excellent separation of the CoA thioesters tested (FIGS. 46A-F), it was unable to resolve 3-HP-CoA and lactyl-CoA. An alternative LC elution system was developed using ammonium acetate and triethylamine (system 2; Table 3).

The ability of system 2 to separate 3-HP-CoA and lactyl-CoA was tested on a mixture of these two compounds. Comparing the results from a mixture of 3-HP-CoA and lactyl-CoA (FIG. 47 A) to the results from lactyl-CoA only (FIG. 47B) revealed that system 2 can separate 3-HP-CoA and lactyl-CoA. The mass spectrum recorded under peak 1 (FIG. 47A insert) was used to identify peak 1 as being a hydroxypropionyl-CoA thioester when compared to FIG. 46C. In addition, comparison of FIGS. 47 and 47B as well as the mass spectra results corresponding to each peak revealed that peak 1 corresponds to 3-HP-CoA and peak 2 corresponds to lactyl-CoA.

System 2 was used to confirm that E. coli transfected with pEIITHrEI produced 3-HP in that 3-HP-CoA was detected. Specifically, an ion chromatogram for m/z=840 in the analysis of a CoA transferase-treated fermentation broth aliquot collected from a culture of E. coli containing pEIITHrEI revealed the presence of 3-HP-CoA (FIG. 48A). The CoA transferase-treated fermentation broth aliquot collected from a culture of E. coli lacking pEIITHrEI did not exhibit the peak corresponding to 3-HP-CoA (FIG. 48B). Thus, these results indicate that the pEIITHrEI plasmid directs the expression of polypeptides having propionyl-CoA transferase activity, lactyl-CoA dehydratase activity, and acrylyl-CoA hydratase activity. These results also indicate that expression of these polypeptides leads to the formation of 3-HP.

Example 9 Cloning Nucleic Acid Molecules that Encode a Polypeptide Having Acetyl CoA Carboxylase Activity

Polypeptides having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity catalyze the first committed step of the fatty acid synthesis by carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA. Polypeptides having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity are also responsible for providing malonyl-CoA for the biosynthesis of very-long-chain fatty acids required for proper cell function. Polypeptides having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity can be biotin dependent enzymes in which the cofactor biotin is post-translationally attached to a specific lysine residue. The reaction catalyzed by such polypeptides consists of two discrete half reactions. In the first half reaction, biotin is carboxylated by biocarbonate in an ATP-dependent reaction to form carboxybiotin. In the second half reaction, the carboxyl group is transferred to acetyl-CoA to form malonyl-CoA.

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic polypeptides having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity exist. The prokaryotic polypeptide is a multi-subunit enzyme (four subunits), where each of the subunits is encoded by a different nucleic acid sequence. For example, in E. coli, the following genes encode for the four subunits of acetyl-CoA carboxylase:

accA: Acetyl-coenzyme a carboxylase carboxyl transferase subunit alpha (GenBank® accession number M96394)

accB: Biotin carboxyl carrier protein (GenBank® accession number U18997)

accC: Biotin carboxylase (GenBank® accession number U18997)

accD: Acetyl-coenzyme a carboxylase carboxyl transferase subunit beta (GenBank® accession number M68934)

The eukaryotic polypeptide is a high molecular weight multi-functional enzyme encoded by a single gene. For example, in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the acetyl-CoA carboxylase can have the sequence set forth in GenBank® accession number M92156.

The prokaryotic type acetyl-CoA carboxylase from E. coli was overexpressed using T7 promoter vector pFN476 as described elsewhere (Davis et al. J. Biol. Chem., 275:28593-28598 (2000)). The eukaryotic type acetyl-CoA carboxylase gene was amplified from Saccharomyces cerevisiae genomic DNA. Two primers were designed to amplify the acc1 gene from in S. cerevisiae (ace1F 5′-atagGCGGCCGCAGGAATGCTGTATGAGCGAAGAAAGCTTATT C-3′, SEQ ID NO: 138 where the bold is homologous sequence, the italics is a Not I site, the underline is a RBS, and the lowercase is extra; and acc1R 5′-atgctcgcatCTCGAGTAG-CTAAATTAAATTACATCAATAGTA-3′, SEQ ID NO: 139 where the bold is homologous sequence, the italics is a Xho I site, and the lowercase is extra). The following PCR mix is used to amplify acc1 gene 10×pfu buffer (10 μL), dNTP (10 mM; 2 μL), cDNA (2 μL), acc1F (100 μM; 1 μL), acc1R (100 μM; 1 μL), pfu enzyme (2.5 units/4; 2 μL), and DI water (82 μL). The following protocol was used to amplify the acc1 gene. After performing PCR, the PCR product was separated on a gel, and the band corresponding to acc1 nucleic acid (about 6.7 Kb) was gel isolated using Qiagen gel isolation kit. The PCR fragment is digested with Not I and Xho I (New England BioLab) restriction enzymes. The digested PCR fragment is then ligated to pET30a which was restricted with Not I and Xho I and dephosphorylated with SAP enzyme. The E. coli strain DH10B was transformed with 1 μL of the ligation mix, and the cells were recovered in 1 mL of SOC media. The transformed cells were selected on LB/kanamycin (50 μg/μL) plates. Eight single colonies are selected, and PCR was used to screen for the correct insert. The plasmid having correct insert was isolated using Qiagen Spin Mini prep kit.

To obtain a polypeptide having acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity, the plasmid pMSD8 or pET30a/acc1 overexpressing E. coli or S. cerevisiae acetyl-CoA carboxylase was transformed into Tuner pLacI chemically competent cells (Novagen, Madison, Wis.). The transformed cells were selected on LB/chloramphenicol (25 μg/mL) plus carbencillin (50 μg/mL) or kanamycin (50 μg/mL).

A crude extract of this strain can be prepared in the following manner. An overnight culture of Tuner pLacI with pMSD8 is subcultured into 200 mL (in one liter baffle culture flask) of fresh M9 media supplemented with 0.4% glucose, 1 μg/mL thiamine, 0.1% casamino acids, and 50 μg/mL carbencillin or 50 μg/mL kanamycin and 25 μg/mL chloramphenicol. The culture is grown at 37° C. in a shaker with 250 rpm agitation until it reaches an optical density at 600 nm of about 0.6. IPTG is then added to a final concentration of 100 μM. The culture is then incubated for an additional 3 hours with shaking speed of 250 rpm at 37° C. Cells are harvested by centrifugation at 8000×g and are washed one time with 0.85% NaCl. The cell pellet was resuspended in a minimal volume of 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 5 mM MgCl₂, 100 mM KCl, 2 mM DTT, and 5% glycerol. The cells are lysed by passing them two times through a French Pressure cell at 1000 psig pressure. The cell debris was removed by centrifugation for 20 minutes at 30,000×g.

The enzyme can be assayed using a method from Davis et al. (J. Biol. Chem., 275:28593-28598 (2000)).

Example 10 Cloning a Nucleic Acid Molecule that Encodes a Polypeptide Having Malonyl-CoA Reductase Activity from Chloroflexus auarantiacus

A polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity was partially purified from Chloroflexus auarantiacus and used to obtained amino acid micro-sequencing results. The amino acid sequencing results were used to identify and clone the nucleic acid that encodes a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity.

Biomass required for protein purification was grown in B. Braun BIOSTAT B fermenters (B. Braun Biotech International GmbH, Melsungen, Germany). A glass vessel fitted with a water jacket for heating was used to grow the required biomass. The glass vessel was connected to its own control unit. The liquid working volume was 4 L, and the fermenter was operated at 55° C. with 75 rpm of agitation. Carbon dioxide was occasionally bubbled through the headspace of the fermenter to maintain anaerobic conditions. The pH of the cultures was monitored using a standard pH probe and was maintained between 8.0 and 8.3. The inoculum for the fermenters was grown in two 250 mL bottles in an Innova 4230 Incubator, Shaker (New Brunswick Scientific, Edison, N.J.) at 55° C. with interior lights. The fermenters were illuminated by three 65 W plant light reflector lamps (General Electric, Cleveland, Ohio). Each lamp was placed approximately 50 cm away from the glass vessel. The media used for the inoculum and the fermenter culture was as follows per liter: 0.07 g EDTA, 1 mL micronutrient solution, 1 mL FeCl₃ solution, 0.06 g CaSO₄.2H₂O, 0.1 g MgSO₄.7H₂O, 0.008 g NaCl, 0.075 g KCl, 0.103 g KNO₃, 0.68 g NaNO₃, 0.111 g Na₂HPO₄, 0.2 g NH₄Cl, 1 g yeast extract, 2.5 g casamino acid, 0.5 g Glycyl-Glycine, and 900 mL DI water. The micronutrient solution contained the following per liter: 0.5 mL H₂SO₄ (conc.), 2.28 g MnSO₄.7H₂O, 0.5 g ZnSO₄.7H₂O, 0.5 g H₃BO₃, 0.025 g CuSO₄.2H₂O, 0.025 g Na₂MoO₄.2H₂O, and 0.045 g CoCl₂.6H₂O. The FeCl₃ solution contained 0.2905 g FeCl₃ per liter. After adjusting the pH of the media to 8.2 to 8.4, 0.75 g/L Na₂S.9H₂O was added, the pH was readjusted to 8.2 to 8.4, and the media was filter-sterilized through a 0.22μ filter.

The fermenter was inoculated with 500 mL of grown culture. The fermentation was stopped, and the biomass was harvested after the cell density was about 0.5 to 0.6 units at 600 nm.

The cells were harvested by centrifugation at 5000×g (Beckman JLA 8.1000 rotor) at 4° C., washed with 1 volume of ice cold 0.85% NaCl, and centrifuged again. The cell pellet was resuspended in 30 mL of ice cold 100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.8) buffer that was supplemented with 2 mM DTT, 5 mM MgCl₂, 0.4 mM PEFABLOC (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.), 1% streptomycin sulfate, and 2 tablets of Complete EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.). The cell suspension was lysed by passing the suspension, three times, through a 50 mL French Pressure Cell operated at 1600 psi (gauge reading). Cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 30,000×g (Beckman JA 25.50 rotor). The crude extract was filtered prior to chromotography using a 0.2 μm HT Tuffryn membrane syringe filter (Pall Corp., Ann Arbor, Mich.). The protein concentration of the crude extract was 29 mg/mL, which was determined using the BioRad Protein Assay according to the manufacturer's microassay protocol. Bovine gamma globulin was used for the standard curve determination. This assay was based on the Bradford dye-binding procedure (Bradford, Anal. Biochem., 72:248 (1976)).

Before starting the protein purification, the following assay was used to determine the activity of malonyl-CoA reductase in the crude extract. A 50 μL aliquot of the cell extract (29 mg/mL) was added to 10 μL 1M Tris-HCl (final concentration in assay 100 mM), 10 μL 10 mM malonyl CoA (final concentration in assay 1 mM), 5.5 μL 5.5 mM NADPH (final concentration in assay 0.3 mM), and 24.5 μL DI water in a 96 well UV transparent plate (Corning, N.Y.). The enzyme activity was measured at 45° C. using SpectraMAX Plus 96 well plate reader (Molecular devices Sunnyvale, Calif.). The activity of malonyl-CoA reductase was monitored by measuring the disappearance of NADPH at 340 nm wavelength. The crude extract exhibited malonyl-CoA reductase activity.

The 5 mL (total 145 mg) protein cell extract was diluted with 20 mL buffer A (20 mM ethanolamine (pH 9.0), 5 mM MgCl₂, 2 mM DTT). The chromatographic protein purification was conducted using a BioLogic protein purification system

(BioRad Hercules, Calif.). The 25 mL of cell suspension was loaded onto a UNO Q-6 ion-exchange column that had been equilibrated with buffer A at a rate of 1 mL/minute. After sample loading, the column was washed with 2.5 times column volume of buffer A at a rate of 2 mL/minute. The proteins were eluted with a linear gradient of NaCl in buffer A from 0-0.33 M in 25 Column volume. During the entire chromatographic separation, three mL fractions were collected. The collection tubes contained 50 μL of Tris-HCl (pH 6.5) so that the pH of the eluted sample dropped to about pH 7. Major chromatographic peaks were detected in the region that corresponded to fractions 18 to 21 and 23 to 30. A 200 μL sample was taken from these fractions and concentrated in a microcentrifuge at 4° C. using a Microcon YM-10 columns (Millipore Corp., Bedford, Mass.) as per manufacture's instructions. To each of the concentrated fraction, buffer A-Tris (100 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.8), 5 mM MgCl₂, 2 mM DTT) was added to bring the total volume to 100 μL. Each of these fractions was tested for the malonyl-CoA reductase activity using the spectophotometric assay described above. The majority of specific malonyl CoA activity was found in fractions 18 to 21. These fractions were pooled together, and the pooled sample was desalted using PD-10 column (Amersham Pharmacia Piscataway, N.J.) as per manufacture's instructions.

The 10.5 mL of desalted protein extract was diluted with buffer A-Tris to a volume of 25 mL. This desalted diluted sample was applied to a 1 mL HiTrap Blue column (Amersham Pharmacia Piscataway, N.J.) which was equilibrated with buffer A-Tris. The sample was loaded at a rate of 0.1 mL/minute. Unbound proteins were washed with 2.5 CV buffer A-Tris. The protein was eluted with 100 Mm Tris (pH 7.8), 5 mM MgCl₂, 2 mM DTT, 2 mM NADPH, and 1 M NaCl. During this separation process, one mL fractions were collected. A 200 μL sample was drawn from fractions 49 to 54 and concentrated. Buffer A-Tris was added to each of the concentrated fractions to bring the total volume to 100 μL. Fractions were assayed for enzyme activity as described above. The highest specific activity was observed in fraction 51. The entire fraction 51 was concentrated as described above, and the concentrated sample was separated on an SDS-PAGE gel.

Electrophoresis was carried out using a Bio-Rad Protean II minigel system and pre-cast SDS-PAGE gels (4-15%), or a Protean II XI system and 16 cm×20 cm×1 mm SDS-PAGE gels (10%) cast as per the manufacturer's protocol. The gels were run according to the manufacturer's instructions with a running buffer of 25 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.3), 192 mM glycine, and 0.1% SDS.

A gel thickness of 1 mm was used to run samples from fraction 51. Protein from fraction 51 was loaded onto 10% SDS-PAGE (3 lanes, each containing 75 μg of total protein). The gels were stained briefly with Coomassie blue (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.) and then destained to a clear background with a 10% acetic acid and 20% methanol solution. The staining revealed a band of about 130 to 140 KDa.

The protein band of about 130-140 KDa was excised with no excess unstained gel present. An equal area gel without protein was excised as a negative control. The gel slices were placed in uncolored micro centrifuge tubes, prewashed with 50% acetonitrile in HPLC-grade water, washed twice with 50% acetonitrile, and shipped on dry ice to Harvard Microchemistry Sequencing Facility, Cambridge, Mass.

After in-situ enzymatic digestion of the polypeptide sample with trypsin, the resulting polypeptides were separated by micro-capillary reverse-phase HPLC. The HPLC was directly coupled to the nano-electrospray ionization source of a Finnigan LCQ quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer (μALC/MS/MS). Individual sequence spectra (MS/MS) were acquired on-line at high sensitivity for the multiple polypeptides separated during the chromatographic run. The MS/MS spectra of the polypeptides were correlated with known sequences using the algorithm Sequest developed at the University of Washington (Eng et al., J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom., 5:976 (1994)) and programs developed at Harvard (Chittum et al., Biochemistry, 37:10866 (1998)). The results were reviewed for consensus with known proteins and for manual confirmation of fidelity.

A similar purification procedure was used to obtain another sample (protein 1 sample) that was subjected to the same analysis that was used to evaluate the fraction 51 sample.

The polypeptide sequence results indicated that the polypeptides obtained from both the fraction 51 sample and the protein 1 sample had similarity to the six (764, 799, 859, 923, 1090, 1024) contigs sequenced from the C. aurantiacus genome and presented on the Joint Genome Institute's web site (http://www.jgi.doe.gov/). The 764 contig was the most prominent of the six with about 40 peptide sequences showing similarity. BLASTX analysis of each of these contigs on the GenBank web site (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST/) indicated that the DNA sequence of the 764 contig (4201 bases) encoded for polypeptides that had a dehydrogenase/reductase type activity. Close inspection of the 764 contig, however, revealed that this contig did not have an appropriate ORF that would encode for a 130-140 KDa polypeptide.

BASLTX analysis also was conducted using the other five contigs. The results of this analysis were as follows. The 799 contig (3173 bases) appeared to encode polypeptides having phosphate and dehydrogenase type activities. The 859 contig (5865 bases) appeared to encode polypeptides having synthetase type activities. The 923 contig (5660 bases) appeared to encode polypeptides having elongation factor and synthetase type activities. The 1090 contig (15201 bases) appeared to encode polypeptides having dehydrogenase/reductase and cytochrome and sigma factor activities. The 1024 contig (12276 bases) appeared to encode polypeptides having dehydrogenase and decarboxylase and synthetase type activities. Thus, the 859 and 923 contigs were eliminated from any further analysis.

The results from the BLASTX analysis also revealed that the dehydrogenase found in the 1024 contig was most likely an inositol monophosphate dehydrogenase. Thus, the 1024 contig was eliminated as a possible candidate that might encode for a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity. The 799 contig also was eliminated since this contig is part of the OS17 polypeptide described above.

This narrowed down the search to 2 contigs, the 764 and 1090 contigs. Since the contigs were identified using the same protein sample and the dehydrogenase activities found in these contigs gave very similar BLASTX results, it was hypothesized that they are part of the same polypeptide. Additional evidence supporting this hypothesis was obtained from the discovery that the 764 and 1090 contigs are adjacent to each other in the C. aurantiacus genome as revealed by an analysis of scaffold data provided by the Joint Genome Institute. Sequence similarity and assembly analysis, however, revealed no overlapping sequence between these two contigs, possibly due to the presence of gaps in the genome sequencing.

The polypeptide sequences that belonged to the 764 and 1090 contigs were mapped. Based on this analysis, an appropriate coding frame and potential start and stop codons were identified. The following PCR primers were designed to PCR amplify a fragment that encoded for a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity: PRO140F 5′-ATGGCGACGGGCGAGTCCATGAG-3′, SEQ ID NO:153; PRO140R 5′-GGACACGAAGAACAGGGCGACAC-3′, SEQ ID NO:154; and PRO140UP 5′-GAACTGTCTGGAGTAAGGCTGTC-3′, SEQ ID NO:155. The PRO140F primer was designed based on the sequence of the 1090 contig and corresponds to the start of the potential start codon. The twelfth base was change from G to C to avoid primer-dimer formation. This change does not change the amino acid that was encoded by the codon. The PRO140R primer was designed based on sequence of the 764 contig and corresponds to a region located about 1 kB downstream from the potential stop codon. The PRO140UPF primer was designed based on sequence of the 1090 contig and corresponds to a region located about 300 bases upstream of potential start codon.

Genomic C. aurantiacus DNA was obtained. Briefly, C. aurantiacus was grown in 50 mL cultures for 3 to 4 days. Cells were pelleted and washed with 5 mL of a 10 mM Tris solution. The genomic DNA was then isolated using the gram positive bacteria protocol provided with Gentra Genomic “Puregene” DNA isolation kit (Gentra Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.). The cell pellet was resuspended in 1 mL Gentra Cell Suspension Solution to which 14.2 mg of lysozyme and 4 μL, of 20 mg/mL proteinase K solution was added. The cell suspension was incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The precipitated genomic DNA was recovered by centrifugation at 3500 g for 25 minutes and air-dried for 10 minutes. The genomic DNA was suspended in an appropriate amount of a 10 mM Tris solution and stored at 4° C.

Two PCR reactions were set-up using C. aurantiacus genomic DNA as template as follows:

PCR Reaction #1 PCR program 3.3 X rTH polymerase Buffer 30 μL 94° C. 2 minutes Mg(OAC) (25 mM) 4 μL 29 cycles of: dNTP Mix (10 mM) 3 μL 94° C. 30 seconds PRO140F (100 μM) 2 μL 63° C. 45 seconds PRO140R (100 μM) 2 μL 68° C. 4.5 minutes Genomic DNA (100 ng/mL) 1 μL 68° C. 7 minutes rTH polymerase (2 U/μL) 2 μL  4° C. Until further use pfu polymerase (2.5 U/μL) 0.25 μL DI water 55.75 μL Total 100 μL

PCR Reaction #2 PCR program 3.3 X rTH polymerase Buffer 30 μL 94° C. 2 minutes Mg(OAC) (25 mM) 4 μL 29 cycles of: dNTP Mix (10 mM) 3 μL 94° C. 30 seconds PRO140UPF (100 μM) 2 μL 60° C. 45 seconds PRO140R (100 μM) 2 μL 68° C. 4.5 minutes Genomic DNA (100 ng/mL) 1 μL 68° C. 7 minutes rTH polymerase (2 U/μL) 2 μL  4° C. Until further use pfu polymerase 2.5 U/μL) 0.25 μL DI water 55.75 μL Total 100 μL

The products from both PCR reactions were separated on a 0.8% TAE gel. Both PCR reactions produced a product of 4.7 to 5 Kb in size. This approximately matched the expected size of a nucleic acid molecule that could encode a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity.

Both PCR products were sequenced using sequencing primers (1090Fseq 5′-GATTCCGTATGTCACCCCTA-3′, SEQ ID NO:156; and 764Rseq 5′-CAGGCGACTGGCAATCACAA-3′, SEQ ID NO:157). The sequence analysis revealed a gap between the 764 and 1090 contigs. The nucleic acid sequence between the sequences from the 764 and 1090 contigs was greater than 300 base pairs in length (FIG. 51). In addition, the sequence analysis revealed an ORF of 3678 bases that showed similarities to dehydrogenase/reductase type enzymes (FIGS. 52A-D). The amino acid sequence encoded by this ORF is 1225 amino acids in length (FIG. 50). Also, BLASTP analysis of the amino acid sequence encoded by this ORF revealed two short chain dehydrogenase domains (adh type). These results are consistent with a polypeptide having malonyl-CoA reductase activity since such an enzyme involves two reduction steps for the conversion of malonyl CoA to 3-HP. Further, the computed MW of the polypeptide was determined to be about 134 KDa.

PCR was conducted using the PRO140F/PRO140R primer pair, C. aurantiacus genomic DNA, and the protocol described above as PCR reaction #1. After the PCR was completed, 0.25 U of Taq polymerase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.) was added to the PCR mix, which was then incubated at 72° C. for 10 minutes. The PCR product was column purified using Qiagen PCR purification kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.). The purified PCR product was then TOPO cloned into expression vector pCRT7/CT as per manufacture's instructions (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). TOP10 F′ chemical competent cells were transformed with the TOPO ligation mix as per manufacture's instructions (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). The cells were recovered for half an hour, and the transformants were selected on LB/ampicillin (100 μg/mL) plates. Twenty single colonies were selected, and the plasmid DNA was isolated using Qiagen spin Mini prep kit (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, Calif.).

Each of these twenty clones were tested for correct orientation and right insert size by PCR. Briefly, plasmid DNA was used as a template, and the following two primers were used in the PCR amplification: PCRT7 5′-GAGACCACAACGGTTTCCCTCTA-3′, SEQ ID NO:158; and PRO140R 5′-GGACACGAAGAACAGGGCGACAC-3′, SEQ ID NO:159. The following PCR reaction mix and program was used:

PCR Reaction PCR program 3.3 X rTH polymerase Buffer 7.5 μL 94° C. 2 minutes Mg(OAC) (25 mM) 1 μL 25 cycles of: dNTP Mix (10 mM) 0.5 μL 94° C. 30 seconds PCRT7 (100 μM) 0.125 μL 55° C. 45 seconds PRO140R (100 μM) 0.125 μL 68° C. 4 minutes Plasmid DNA 0.5 μL 68° C. 7 minutes rTH polymerase (2 U/μL) 0.5 μL  4° C. Until further use DI water 14.75 μL Total 25 μL

Out of twenty clone tested, only one clone exhibited the correct insert (Clone # P-10). Chemical competent cells of BL21(DE3)pLysS (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) were transformed with 2 μL of the P-10 plasmid DNA as per the manufacture's instructions.

The cells were recovered at 37° C. for 30 minutes and were plated on LB ampicillin (100 μg/mL) and chloramphenicol (25 μg/mL).

A 20 mL culture of BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 and a 20 mL control culture of BL21(DE3)pLysS was incubated overnight. Using the overnight cultures as an inoculum, two 100 mL BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 clone cultures and two control strain cultures (BL21(DE3)pLysS) were started. All the cultures were induced with IPTG when they reached an OD of about 0.5 at 600 nm. The control strain culture was induced with 10 μM IPTG or 100 μM IPTG, while one of the BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 clone cultures was induced with 10 μM IPTG and the other with 100 μM IPTG. The cultures were grown for 2.5 hours after induction. Aliquots were taken from each of the culture flasks before and after 2.5 hours of induction and separated using 4-15% SDS-PAGE to analyze polypeptide expression. In the induced BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 samples, a band corresponding to a polypeptide having a molecular weight of about 135 KDa was observed. This band was absent in the control strain samples and in samples taken before IPTG induction.

To assess malonyl-CoA reductase activity, BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 and BL21(DE3)pLysS cells were cultured and then harvested by centrifugation at 8,000×g (Rotor JA 16.250, Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, Calif.). Once harvested, the cells were washed once with an equal volume of a 0.85% NaCl solution. The cell pellets were resuspended into 100 mM Tris-HCl buffer that was supplemented with 5 mM Mg₂Cl and 2 mM DTT. The cells were disrupted by passing twice through a French Press Cell at 1,000 psi pressure (Gauge value). The cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 30,000×g (Rotor JA 25.50, Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, Calif.). The cell extract was maintained at 4° C. or on ice until further use.

Activity of malonyl-CoA reductase was measured at 37° C. for both the control cells and the IPTG-induced cells. The activity of malonyl-CoA reductase was monitored by observing the disappearance of added NADPH as described above. No activity was found in the cell extract of the control strain, while the cell extract from the IPTG-induced BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 cells displayed malonyl-CoA reductase activity with a specific activity calculated to be about 0.0942 μmole/minute/mg of total protein.

Malonyl-CoA reductase activity also was measured by analyzing 3-HP formation from malonyl CoA using the following reaction conducted at 37° C.:

Volume Final conc. Tris HCl (1M) 10 μL 100 mM  Malonyl CoA (10 mM) 40 μL 4 mM NADPH (10 mM) 30 μL 3 mM Cell extract 20 μL Total 100 μL 

The reaction was carried out at 37° C. for 30 minutes. In the control reaction, a cell extract from BL21(DE3)pLysS was added to a final concentration of 322 mg total protein. In the experimental reaction mix, a cell extract from BL21(DE3)pLysS/P-10 was added to a final concentration of 226 mg of total protein. The reaction mixtures were frozen at −20° C. until further analysis.

Chromatographic separation of the components in the reaction mixtures was performed using a HPX-87H (7.8×300 mm) organic acid HPLC column (BioRad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.). The column was maintained at 60° C. Mobile phase composition was HPLC grade water pH to 2.5 using trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and was delivered at a flow rate of 0.6 mL/minute.

Detection of 3-HP in the reaction samples was accomplished using a Waters/Micromass ZQ LC/MS instrument consisting of a Waters 2690 liquid chromatograph (Waters Corp., Milford, Mass.) with a Waters 996 Photo-diode Array (PDA) absorbance monitor placed in series between the chromatograph and the single quandrupole mass spectrometer. The ionization source was an Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization (APCI) ionization source. All parameters of the APCI-MS system were optimized and selected based on the generation of the protonated molecular ion ([M+H])⁺ of 3-HP. The following parameters were used to detect 3-HP in the positive ion mode: Corona: 10 μA; Cone: 20V; Extractor: 2V; RF lens: 0.2V; Source temperature: 100° C.; APCI Probe temperature: 300° C.; Desolvation gas: 500 L/hour; Cone gas: 50 L/hour; Low mass resolution: 15; High mass resolution: 15; Ion energy: 1.0; Multiplier: 650. Data was collected in Selected Ion Reporting (SIR) mode set at m/z=90.9.

Both the control reaction sample and the experimental reaction sample were probed for presence of 3-HP using the HPLC-mass spectroscopy technique. In the control samples, no 3-HP peak was observed, while the experimental sample exhibited a peak that matched the retention and the mass of 3-HP.

Example 11 Constructing Recombinant Cells that Produce 3-HP

A pathway to make 3-hydroxypropionate directly from glucose via acetyl CoA is presented in FIG. 44. Most organisms such as E. coli, Bacillus, and yeast produce acetyl CoA from glucose via glycolysis and the action of pyruvate dehydrogenase. In order to divert the acetyl CoA generated from glucose, it is desirable to overexpress two genes, one encoding for acetyl CoA carboxylase and the other encoding malonyl-CoA reductase. As an example, these genes are expressed in E. coli through a T7 promoter using vectors pET30a and pFN476. The vector pET30a has a pBR ori and kanamycin resistance, while pFN476 has pSC101 ori and uses carbencillin resistance for selection. Because these two vectors have compatible ori and different markers they can be maintained in E. coli at the same time. Hence, the constructs used to engineer E. coli for direct production of 3-hydroxypropionate from glucose are pMSD8 (pFN476/accABCD) (Davis et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275:28593-28598, 2000) and pET30a/malonyl-CoA reductase or pET30a/acc1 and pFN476/malonyl-CoA reductase. The constructs are depicted in FIG. 45.

To test the production of 3-hydroxypropionate from glucose, E. coli strain Tuner pLacI carrying plasmid pMSD8 (pFN476/accABCD) and pET30a/malonyl-CoA reductase or pET30a/acc1 and pFN476/malonyl-CoA reductase are grown in a B. Braun BIOSTAT B fermenter. A glass vessel fitted with a water jacket for heating is used to conduct this experiment. The fermenter working volume is 1.5 L and is operated at 37° C. The fermenter is continuously supplied with oxygen by bubbling sterile air through it at a rate of 1 vvm. The agitation is cascaded to the dissolve oxygen concentration which is maintained at 40% DO. The pH of the liquid media is maintained at 7 using 2 N NaOH. The E. coli strain is grown in M9 media supplemented with 1% glucose, 1 μg/mL thiamine, 0.1% casamino acids, 10 μg/mL biotin, 50 μg/mL carbencillin, 50 μg/mL kanamycin, and 25 μg/mL chloramphenicol. The expression of the genes is induced when the cell density reached 0.5 OD(600 nm) by adding 100 μM IPTG. After induction, samples of 2 mL volume are taken at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8 hours. In addition, at 3 hours after induction, a 200 mL sample is taken to make a cell extract. The 2 mL samples are spun, and the supernatant is used to analyze products using LC/MS technique. The supernatant is stored at −20° C. until further analysis.

The extract is prepared by spinning the 200 mL of cell suspension at 8000 g and washing the cell pellet with of 50 mL of 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 5 mM MgCl₂, 100 mM KCl, 2 mM DTT, and 5% glycerol. The cell suspension is spun again at 8000 g, and the pellet is resuspended into 5 mL of 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 5 mM MgCl₂, 100 mM KCl, 2 mM DTT, and 5% glycerol. The cells are disrupted by passing twice through a French Press at 1000 ping. The cell debris is removed by centrifugation for 20 minutes at 30,000 g. All the operations are conducted at 4° C. To demonstrated in vitro formation of 3-hydroxypropionate using this recombinant cell extract, the following reaction of 200 μL is conducted at 37° C. The reaction mix is as follows: Tris HCl (pH 8.0; 100 mM), ATP (1 mM), MgCl₂ (5 mM), KCl (100 mM), DTT (5 mM), NaHCO₃ (40 mM), NADPH (0.5 mM), acetyl CoA (0.5 mM), and cell extract (0.2 mg). The reaction is stopped after 15 minutes by adding 1 volume of 10% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). The products of this reaction are detected using an LC/MS technique.

The detection and analysis for the presence of 3-hydroxypropionate in the supernatant and the in vitro reaction mixture is carried out using a Waters/Micromass ZQ LC/MS instrument. This instrument consists of a Waters 2690 liquid chromatograph with a Waters 2410 refractive index detector placed in series between the chromatograph and the single quadropole mass spectrometer. LC separations are made using a Bio-Rad Aminex 87-H ion-exchange column at 45° C. Sugars, alcohol, and organic acid products are eluted with 0.015% TFA buffer. For elution, the buffer is passed at a flow rate of 0.6 mL/minute. For detection and quantification of 3-hydroxypropionate, a sample obtained from TCI, America (Portland, Oreg.) is used as a standard.

Example 12 Cloning of Propionyl-CoA Transferase, Lactyl-CoA Dehydratase (LDH), and a Hydratase (OS19) for Expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The pESC Yeast Epitope Tagging Vector System (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) was used in cloning the genes involved in 3-hydroxypropionic acid production via lactic acid. The pESC vectors each contain GALL and GAL10 promoters in opposing directions, allowing the expression of two genes from each vector. The GALL and GAL10 promoters are repressed by glucose and induced by galactose. Each of the four available pESC vectors has a different yeast-selectable marker (HIS3, TRP1, LEU2, URA3) so multiple plasmids can be maintained in a single strain. Each cloning region has a polylinker site for gene insertion, a transcription terminator, and an epitope coding sequence for C-terminal or N-terminal epitope tagging of expressed proteins. The pESC vectors also have a ColE1 origin of replication and an ampicillin resistance gene to allow replication and selection in E. coli. The following vector/promoter/nucleic acid combinations were constructed:

Vector Promoter Polypeptide Source of nucleic acid pESC-Trp GAL1 OS19 hydratase Chloroflexus aurantiacus GAL10 E1 Megasphaera elsdenii pESC-Leu GAL1 E2α Megasphaera elsdenii GAL10 E2β Megasphaera elsdenii pESC-His GAL1 D-LDH Escherishia coli GAL10 PCT Megasphaera elsdenii

The primers used were as follows:

OS19APAF: (SEQ ID NO: 164) 5′-ATAGGGCCCAGGAGATCAAACCATGGGTGAAGAGTCTCTGGTTC-3′ OS19SALR: (SEQ ID NO: 165) 5′-CCTCTGCTACAGTCGACACAACGACCACTGAAGTTGGGAG-3′ OS19KPNR: (SEQ ID NO: 166) 5′-AGTCTGCTATCGGTACCTCAACGACCACTGAAGTTGGGAG-3′ EINOTF: (SEQ ID NO: 167) 5′-ATAGCGGCCGCATAATGGATACTCTCGGAATCGACGTTGG-3′ EICLAR: (SEQ ID NO: 168) 5′-CCCCATCGATACATATTTCTTGATTTTATCATAAGCAATC-3′ EIIαAPAF: (SEQ ID NO: 169) 5′-CCAGGGCCCATAATGGGTGAAGAAAAAACAGTAGATATTG-3′ EIIαSALR: (SEQ ID NO: 170) 5′-GGTAGACTTGTCGACGTAGTGGTTTCCTCCTTCATTGG-3′ EIIβNOTF: (SEQ ID NO: 171) 5′-ATAGCGGCCGCATAATGGGTCAGATCGACGAACTTATCAG-3′ EIIβSPER: (SEQ ID NO: 172) 5′-AGGTTCAACTAGTTCGTAGAGGATTTCCGAGAAAGCCTG-3′ LDHAPAF: (SEQ ID NO: 173) 5′-CTAGGGCCCATAATGGAACTCGCCGTTTATAGCAC-3′ LDHXHOR: (SEQ ID NO: 174) 5′-ACTTCTCGAGTTAAACCAGTTCGTTCGGGCAGGT-3′ PCTSPEF: (SEQ ID NO: 175) 5′-GGGACTAGTATAATGGGAAAAGTAGAAATCATTACAG-3′ PCTPACR: (SEQ ID NO: 176) 5′-CGGCTTAATTAACAGCAGAGATTTATTTTTTCAGTCC-3′

All restriction enzymes were obtained from New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass. All plasmid DNA preparations were done using QIAprep Spin Miniprep Kits, and all gel purifications were done using QIAquick Gel Extraction Kits (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.).

A. Construction of the pESC-Trp/OS19 Hydratase Vector

Two constructs in pESC-Trp were made for the OS19 nucleic acid from C. aurantiacus. One of these constructs utilized the Apa I and Sal I restriction sites of the GALL multiple cloning site and was designed to include the c-myc epitope. The second construct utilized the Apa I and Kpn I sites and thus did not include the c-myc epitope sequence.

Six μg of pESC-Trp vector DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme Apa I and the digest was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Column. Three μg of the Apa I-digested vector DNA was then digested with the restriction enzyme Kpn I, and 3 μg was digested with Sal I. The double-digested vector DNAs were separated on a 1% TAE-agarose gel, purified, dephosphorylated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche Biochemical Products, Indianapolis, Ind.), and purified with a QIAquick PCR

Purification Column.

The nucleic acid encoding the Chloroflexus aurantiacus polypeptide having hydratase activity (OS19) was amplified from genomic DNA using the PCR primer pair OS19APAF and OS19SALR and the primer pair OS19APAF and OS19 KPNR. OS19APAF was designed to introduce an Apa I restriction site and a translation initiation site (ACCATGG) at the beginning of the amplified fragment. The OS19 KPNR primer was designed to introduce a Kpn I restriction site at the end of the amplified fragment and to contain the translational stop codon for the hydratase gene. OS19SALR introduces a Sal I site at the end of the amplified fragment and has an altered stop codon so that translation continues in-frame through the vector c-myc epitope. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Expand PCR buffer, 100 ng C. aurantiacus genomic DNA, 0.2 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 5.25 units of Expand DNA Polymerase (Roche) in a final volume of 100 μL. The PCR reaction was performed in an MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 1 minute; 8 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 57° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 2.25 minutes; 24 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 62° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 2.25 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. The amplification product was then separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE-agarose gel. A 0.8 Kb fragment was excised from the gel and purified for each primer pair. The purified fragments were digested with Kpn I or Sal I restriction enzyme, purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, digested with Apa I restriction enzyme, purified again with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, and quantified on a minigel.

50-60 ng of the digested PCR product containing the nucleic acid encoding the C. aurantiacus polypeptide having hydratase activity (OS19) and 50 ng of the prepared pESC-Trp vector were ligated using T4 DNA ligase at 16° C. for 16 hours. One μL of the ligation reaction was used to electroporate 40 μL of E. coli Electromax™ DH10B™ cells. The electroporated cells were plated onto LB plates containing 100 μg/mL of carbenicillin (LBC). Individual colonies were screened using colony PCR with the appropriate PCR primers. Individual colonies were suspended in about 25 μL of 10 mM Tris, and 2 μL of the suspension was plated on LBC media. The remnant suspension was heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells, and 2 μL of the heated cells was used in a 25 μL PCR reaction. The PCR mix contained the following: 1×Taq buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR program used was the same as described above for amplification of the nucleic acid from genomic DNA. Plasmid DNA was isolated from cultures of colonies having the desired insert and was sequenced to confirm the lack of nucleotide errors from PCR. A construct with a confirmed sequence was transformed into S. cerevisiae strain YPH500 using a Frozen-EZ Yeast Transformation II™ Kit (Zymo Research, Orange, Calif.). Transformation reactions were plated on SC-Trp media (see Stratagene pESC Vector Instruction Manual for media recipes). Individual yeast colonies were screened for the presence of the OS19 nucleic acid by colony PCR. Colonies were suspended in 20 μL of Y-Lysis Buffer (Zymo Research) containing 5 units of zymolase and heated at 37° C. for 10 minutes. Three μL of this suspension was then used in a 25 μL PCR reaction using the PCR reaction mixture and program described for the colony screen of the E. coli transformants. The pESC-Trp vector was also transformed into YPH500 for use as a hydratase assay control and transformants were screened by PCR using GALL and GAL 10 primers.

B. Construction of the pESC-Trp/OS19/E1 Hydratase Vector

Plasmid DNA of a pESC-Trp/OS19 construct (Apa I-Sal I sites) with confirmed sequence and positive assay results was used for insertion of the nucleic acid for the M. elsdenii E1 activator polypeptide downstream of the GAL10 promoter. Three μg of plasmid DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme Cla I, and the digest was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Column. The vector DNA was then digested with the restriction enzyme Not I, and the digest was inactivated by heating to 65° C. for 20 minutes. The double-digested vector DNA was dephosphorylated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche), separated on a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and gel purified.

The nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii E1 activator polypeptide was amplified from genomic DNA using the PCR primer pair EINOTF and EICLAR. EINOTF was designed to introduce a Not I restriction site and a translation initiation site at the beginning of the amplified fragment. The EICLAR primer was designed to introduce a Cla I restriction site at the end of the amplified fragment and to contain an altered translational stop codon to allow in-frame translation of the FLAG epitope. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Expand PCR buffer, 100 ng M. elsdenii genomic DNA, 0.2 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 5.25 units of Expand DNA Polymerase in a final volume of 100 μL. The PCR reaction was performed in an MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 1 minute; 8 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 55° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; 24 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 62° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. The amplification product was then separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and a 0.8 Kb fragment was excised and purified. The purified fragment was digested with Cla I restriction enzyme, purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, digested with Not I restriction enzyme, purified again with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, and quantified on a minigel.

60 ng of the digested PCR product containing the nucleic acid for the M. elsdenii E1 activator polypeptide and 70 ng of the prepared pESC-Trp/OS19 hydratase vector were ligated using T4 DNA ligase at 16° C. for 16 hours. One μL of the ligation reaction was used to electroporate 40 μL of E. coli Electromax™ DH10B™ cells. The electroporated cells were plated onto LBC media. Individual colonies were screened using colony PCR with the EINOTF and EICLAR primers. Individual colonies were suspended in about 25 μL of 10 mM Tris, and 2 μL of the suspension was plated on LBC media. The remnant suspension was heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells, and 2 μL of the heated cells used in a 25 μL PCR reaction. The PCR mix contained the following: lx Taq buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR program used was the same as described above for amplification of the gene from genomic DNA. Plasmid DNA was isolated from cultures of colonies having the desired insert and was sequenced to confirm the lack of nucleotide errors from PCR.

C. Construction of the pESC-Leu/EIIα/EIIβ Vector

Three μg of DNA of the vector pESC-Leu was digested with the restriction enzyme Apa I, and the digest was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Column. The vector DNA was then digested with the restriction enzyme SalI, and the digest was inactivated by heating to 65° C. for 20 minutes. The double-digested vector DNA was dephosphorylated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche), separated on a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and gel purified.

The nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii E2α polypeptide was amplified from genomic DNA using the PCR primer pair EIIαAPAF and EIIααSALR. EIIαAPAF was designed to introduce an Apa I restriction site and a translation initiation site at the beginning of the amplified fragment. The EIIαSALR primer was designed to introduce a SalI restriction site at the end of the amplified fragment and to contain an altered translational stop codon to allow in-frame translation of the c-myc epitope. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Expand PCR buffer, 100 ng M. elsdenii genomic DNA, 0.2 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 5.25 units of Expand DNA Polymerase in a final volume of 100 μL. The PCR reaction was performed in an MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 1 minute; 8 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 55° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; 24 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 62° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. The amplification product was then separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and a 1.3 Kb fragment was excised and purified. The purified fragment was digested with Apa I restriction enzyme, purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, digested with Sal I restriction enzyme, purified again with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, and quantified on a minigel.

80 ng of the digested PCR product containing the nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii E2α polypeptide and 80 ng of the prepared pESC-Leu vector were ligated using T4 DNA ligase at 16° C. for 16 hours. One μL of the ligation reaction was used to electroporate 40 μL of E. coli Electromax™ DH10B™ cells. The electroporated cells were plated onto LBC media. Individual colonies were screened using colony PCR with the EIIαAPAF and EIIαSALR primers. Individual colonies were suspended in about 25 μl of 10 mM Tris, and 2 μL of the suspension was plated on LBC media. The remnant suspension was heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells, and 2 μL of the heated cells used in a 25 μL PCR reaction. The PCR mix contained the following: 1×Taq buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR program used was the same as described above for amplification of the gene from genomic DNA. Plasmid DNA was isolated from cultures of colonies having the desired insert and was sequenced to confirm the lack of nucleotide errors from PCR.

Plasmid DNA of a pESC-Leu/EIIα vector with confirmed sequence was used for insertion of the nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii E2β polypeptide. Three μg of plasmid DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme Spe I, and the digest was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Column. The vector DNA was then digested with the restriction enzyme Not I and gel purified from a 1% TAE-agarose gel. The double-digested vector DNA was then dephosphorylated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche) and purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column.

The nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii E2β polypeptide was amplified from genomic DNA using the PCR primer pair EIIβNOTF and EIIβSPER. The EIIβNOTF primer was designed to introduce a Not I restriction site and a translation initiation site at the beginning of the amplified fragment. The EIIβSPER primer was designed to introduce an Spe I restriction site at the end of the amplified fragment and to contain an altered translational stop codon to allow for in-frame translation of the FLAG epitope. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Expand PCR buffer, 100 ng M. elsdenii genomic DNA, 0.2 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 5.25 units of Expand DNA Polymerase in a final volume of 100 μL. The PCR reaction was performed in an MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 1 minute; 8 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 55° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; 24 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 62° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 3 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. The amplification product was separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and a 1.1 Kb fragment was excised and purified. The purified fragment was digested with Spe I restriction enzyme, purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, digested with Not I restriction enzyme, purified again with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, and quantified on a minigel.

38 ng of the digested PCR product containing the nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii E2β polypeptide and 50 ng of the prepared pESC-Leu/EIIα vector were ligated using T4 DNA ligase at 16° C. for 16 hours. One μL of the ligation reaction was used to electroporate 40 μL of E. coli Electromax™ DH10B™ cells. The electroporated cells were plated onto LBC plates. Individual colonies were screened using colony PCR with the EIIβNOTF and EIIβSPER primers. Individual colonies were suspended in about 25 μL of 10 mM Tris, and 2 μL of the suspension was plated on LBC media. The remnant suspension was heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells, and 2 μL of the heated cells was used in a 25 μL PCR reaction. The PCR mix contained the following: 1×Taq buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR program used was the same as described above for amplification of the gene from genomic DNA.

Plasmid DNA was isolated from cultures of colonies having the desired insert and was sequenced to confirm the lack of nucleotide errors from PCR. A pESC-Leu/EIIα/EIIβ construct with a confirmed sequence was co-transformed along with the pESC-Trp/OS19/E1 vector into S. cerevisiae strain YPH500 using a Frozen-EZ Yeast Transformation II™ Kit (Zymo Research, Orange, Calif.). Transformation reactions were plated on SC-Trp-Leu media. Individual yeast colonies were screened for the presence of the OS19, E1, E2α, and E2β nucleic acid by colony PCR. Colonies were suspended in 20 μL of Y-Lysis Buffer (Zymo Research) containing 5 units of zymolase and heated at 37° C. for 10 minutes. Three μL of this suspension was then used in a 25 μL PCR reaction using the PCR reaction mixtures and programs described for the colony screens of the E. coli transformants. The pESC-Trp/OS19 and pESC-Leu vectors were also co-transformed into YPH500 for use as a lactyl-CoA dehydratase assay control. These transformants were colony screened using the GALL and GAL10 primers (Instruction manual, pESC Yeast Epitope Tagging Vectors, Stratagene).

D. Construction of the pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT Vector

Three μg of DNA of the vector pESC-His was digested with the restriction enzyme Xho I, and the digest was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Column. The vector DNA was then digested with the restriction enzyme Apa I and gel purified from a 1% TAE-agarose gel. The double-digested vector DNA was dephosphorylated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche) and purified using a QIAquick PCR

Purification Column.

The E. coli D-LDH gene was amplified from genomic DNA of strain DH10B using the PCR primer pair LDHAPAF and LDHXHOR. LDHAPAF was designed to introduce an Apa I restriction site and a translation initiation site at the beginning of the amplified fragment. The LDHXHOR primer was designed to introduce an Xho I restriction site at the end of the amplified fragment and to contain the translational stop codon for the D-LDH gene. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Expand PCR buffer, 100 ng E. coli genomic DNA, 0.2 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 5.25 units of Expand DNA Polymerase in a final volume of 100 μL. The PCR reaction was performed in an MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 1 minute; 8 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 59° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 2 minutes; 24 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 64° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 2 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. The amplification product was separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and a 1.0 Kb fragment was excised and purified. The purified fragment was digested with Apa I restriction enzyme, purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, digested with Xho I restriction enzyme, purified again with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, and quantified on a minigel.

80 ng of the digested PCR product containing the E. coli D-LDH gene and 80 ng of the prepared pESC-His vector were ligated using T4 DNA ligase at 16° C. for 16 hours. One μL of the ligation reaction was used to electroporate 40 μL of E. coli Electromax™ DH10B™ cells. The electroporated cells were plated onto LBC media. Individual colonies were screened using colony PCR with the LDHAPAF and LDHXHOR primers. Individual colonies were suspended in about 25 μL of 10 mM Tris, and 2 μL of the suspension was plated on LBC media. The remnant suspension was heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells, and 2 μL of the heated cells used in a 25 μL PCR reaction. The PCR mix contained the following: 1×Taq buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR program used was the same as described above for amplification of the gene from genomic DNA. Plasmid DNA was isolated from cultures of colonies having the desired insert and was sequenced to confirm the lack of nucleotide errors from PCR.

Plasmid DNA of a pESC-His/D-LDH construct with a confirmed sequence was used for insertion of the nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii PCT polypeptide. Three μg of plasmid DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme Pac I, and the digest was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Column. The vector DNA was then digested with the restriction enzyme Spe I and gel purified from a 1% TAE-agarose gel. The double-digested vector DNA was dephosphorylated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Roche) and purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column.

The nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii PCT polypeptide was amplified from genomic DNA using the PCR primer pair PCTSPEF and PCTPACR. PCTSPEF was designed to introduce an Spe I restriction site and a translation initiation site at the beginning of the amplified fragment. The PCTPACR primer was designed to introduce a Pac I restriction site at the end of the amplified fragment and to contain the translational stop codon for the PCT gene. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Expand PCR buffer, 100 ng M. elsdenii genomic DNA, 0.2 μM of each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 5.25 units of Expand DNA Polymerase in a final volume of 100 μL. The PCR reaction was performed in an MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 1 minute; 8 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 56° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 2.5 minutes; 24 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 64° C. for 45 seconds, and 72° C. for 2.5 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. The amplification product was separated by gel electrophoresis using a 1% TAE-agarose gel, and a 1.55 Kb fragment was excised and purified. The purified fragment was digested with Pac I restriction enzyme, purified with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, digested with Spe I restriction enzyme, purified again with a QIAquick PCR Purification Column, and quantified on a minigel.

95 ng of the digested PCR product containing the nucleic acid encoding the M. elsdenii PCT polypeptide and 75 ng of the prepared pESC-His/D-LDH vector were ligated using T4 DNA ligase at 16° C. for 16 hours. One μL of the ligation reaction was used to electroporate 40 μL of E. coli Electromax™ DH10B™ cells. The electroporated cells were plated onto LBC plates. Individual colonies were screened using colony PCR with the PCTSPEF and PCTPACR primers. Individual colonies were suspended in about 25 μL of 10 mM Tris, and 2 μL of the suspension was plated on LBC media. The remnant suspension was heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells, and 2 μL of the heated cells used in a 25 μL PCR reaction. The PCR mix contained the following: lx Taq buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR program used was the same as described above for amplification of the gene from genomic DNA.

Plasmid DNA was isolated from cultures of colonies having the desired insert and was sequenced to confirm the lack of nucleotide errors from PCR. A construct with a confirmed sequence was transformed into S. cerevisiae strain YPH500 using a Frozen-EZ Yeast Transformation II™ Kit (Zymo Research, Orange, Calif.). Transformation reactions were plated on SC-His media. Individual yeast colonies were screened for the presence of the D-LDH and PCT genes by colony PCR. Colonies were suspended in 20 μL of Y-Lysis Buffer (Zymo Research) containing 5 units of zymolase and heated at 37° C. for 10 minutes. Three μL of this suspension was then used in a 25 μL PCR reaction using the PCR reaction mixture and program described for the colony screen of the E. coli transformants. The pESC-His vector was also transformed into YPH500 for use as an assay control, and transformants were screened by PCR using GALL and GAL10 primers.

Example 13 Expression of Enzymes in S. cerevisiae

A. Hydratase Activity in Transformed Yeast

Individual colonies carrying the pESC-Trp/OS19 construct or the pESC-Trp vector (negative control) were used to inoculate 5 mL cultures of SC-Trp media containing 2% glucose. These cultures were grown for 16 hours at 30° C. and used to inoculate 35 mL of the same media. The subcultures were grown for 7 hours at 30° C., and their OD₆₀₀s were determined. A volume of cells giving an OD×volume equal to 40 was pelleted, washed with SC-Trp media with no carbon source, and repelleted. The cells were suspended in 5 mL of SC-Trp media containing 2% galactose and used to inoculate a total volume of 100 mL of this media. Cultures were grown for 17.5 hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Cells were then pelleted, rinsed in 0.85% NaCl, and repelleted. Cell pellets (70 mg) were suspended in 140 μL of 50 mM TrisHCl, pH 7.5, and an equal volume (pellet plus buffer) of pre-rinsed glass beads (Sigma, 150-212 microns) was added. This mixture was vortexed for 30 seconds and placed on ice for 1 minute, and the vortexing/cooling cycle was repeated 8 additional times. The cells were then centrifuged for 6 minutes at 5,000 g, and the supernatant was removed to a fresh tube. The beads/pellet were washed twice with 250 μL of buffer, centrifuged, and the supernatants joined with the first supernatant.

An E. coli strain carrying the pETBlue-1/OS19 construct, described previously, was used as a positive control for hydratase assays. A culture of this strain was grown to saturation overnight and diluted 1:20 the following morning in fresh LBC media. The culture was grown at 37° C. and 250 rpm to an OD₆₀₀ of 0.6, at which point it was induced with IPTG at a final concentration of 1 mM. The culture was incubated for an additional two hours at 37° C. and 250 rpm. Cells were pelleted, washed with 0.85% NaCl, and repelleted. Cells were disrupted using BugBuster™ Protein Extraction Reagent and Benzonase® (Novagen) as per manufacturer's instructions with a 20 minute incubation at room temperature. After centrifugation at 16,000 g and 4° C., the supernatant was transferred to a new tube and used in the activity assay.

Total protein content of cell extracts from S. cerevisiae described above were quantified using a microplate Bio-Rad Protein Assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). The OS19 constructs (both Apa I-Sal I and Apa I-Kpn I sites) in YPH500, the pESC-Trp negative control in YPH500, and the pETBlue-1/OS19 construct in E. coli were tested for their ability to convert acrylyl-CoA to 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA. The assay was conducted as previously described for the pETBlue-1/OS19 constructs in the E. coli Tuner strain. When cell extract of the negative control strain was added to the reaction mixture containing acrylyl-CoA, one dominant peak of MW 823 was exhibited. This peak corresponds to acrylyl-CoA and indicates that acrylyl-CoA was not converted to any other product. When cell extract of the strain carrying a pESC-Trp/OS19 construct (either Apa I-Sal I or Apa I-Kpn I sites) was added to the reaction mix, the dominant peak shifted to MW 841, which corresponds to 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA. The reaction mix from the E. coli control also showed the MW 841 peak. A time course study was conducted for the pESC-Trp/OS19(Apa I-Sal I) construct, which measured the appearance of the MW 841 and MW 823 peaks after 0, 1, 3, 7, 15, 30, and 60 minutes of reaction time. An increase in the 3-hydroxypropionyl-CoA peak was seen over time with the cell extracts from both this construct and the E. coli control, whereas cell extract from the YPH500 strain with vector only showed a dominant acrylyl-CoA peak.

B. Propionyl CoA-Transferase Activity in Transformed Yeast

Individual colonies of S. cerevisiae strain YPH500 carrying the pESC-His/D-LDH or pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT construct or the pESC-His vector with no insert (negative control) were used to inoculate 5 mL cultures of SC-His media containing 2% glucose. These cultures were grown for 16 hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm and were then used to inoculate 35 mL of the same media. The subcultures were grown for 7 hours at 30° C., and their OD₆₀₀s were determined. For each strain, a volume of cells giving an OD×volume equal to 40 was pelleted, washed with SC-His media with no carbon source, and repelleted. The cells were suspended in 5 mL of SC-His media containing 2% galactose and used to inoculate a total volume of 100 mL of this media. Cultures were grown for 16.75 hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Cells were then pelleted, rinsed in 0.85% NaCl, and repelleted. Cell pellets (70 mg) were suspended in 140 μL of 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.5, and an equal volume (pellet plus buffer) of pre-rinsed glass beads (Sigma, 150-212 microns) was added. This mixture was vortexed for 30 seconds and placed on ice for 1 minute, and the vortexing/cooling cycle was repeated 8 additional times. The cells were then centrifuged for 6 minutes at 5,000 g, and the supernatant was removed to a fresh tube. The beads/pellet were washed twice with 250 μL of buffer and centrifuged, and the supernatants joined with the first supernatant.

An E. coli strain carrying the pETBlue-1/PCT construct, described previously, was used as a positive control for propionyl CoA transferase assays. A culture of this strain was grown to saturation overnight and diluted 1:20 the following morning in fresh LB media containing 100 μg/mL of carbenicillin. The culture was grown at 37° C. and 250 rpm to an OD₆₀₀ of 0.6, at which point it was induced with IPTG at a final concentration of 1 mM. The culture was incubated for an additional two hours at 37° C. and 250 rpm. Cells were pelleted, washed with 0.85% NaCl, and repelleted. Cells were disrupted using BugBuster™ Protein Extraction Reagent and Benzonase® (Novagen) as per manufacturer's instructions with a 20 minute incubation at room temperature. After centrifugation at 16,000 g and 4° C., the supernatant was transferred to a new tube and used in the activity assay.

Total protein content of cell extracts was quantified using a microplate Bio-Rad Protein Assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). The D-LDH and D-LDH/PCT constructs in S. cerevisiae strain YPH500, the pESC-His negative control in YPH500, and the pETBlue-1/PCT construct in E. coli were tested for their ability to catalyze the conversion of propionyl-CoA and acetate to acetyl-CoA and propionate. The assay mixture used was that previously described for the pETBlue-1/PCT constructs in the E. coli Tuner strain.

When 1 μg of total cell extract protein of the negative control strain or the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH strain was added to the reaction mixture, no increase in absorbance (0.00 to 0.00) was seen over 11 minutes. Increases in absorbance from 0.00 to 0.04 and from 0.00 to 0.06 were seen, respectively, with 1 μg of cell extract protein from the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT strain and the E. coli/PCT strain. With 2 mg of total cell extract protein, the negative control strain and the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH strain showed an increase in absorbance from 0.00 to 0.01 over 11 minutes, whereas increases from 0.00 to 0.10 and 0.00 to 0.08 were seen, respectively, with the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT strain and the E. coli/PCT strain.

C. Lactyl-CoA Dehydratase Activity in Transformed Yeast

Individual colonies of S. cerevisiae strain YPH500 carrying the pESC-His/D-LDH or pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT construct or the pESC-His vector with no insert (negative control) were used to inoculate 5 mL cultures of SC-His media containing 4% glucose. These cultures were grown for 23 hours at 30° C. and used to inoculate 35 mL of SC-His media containing 2% raffinose. The subcultures were grown for 8 hours at 30° C., and their OD₆₀₀s were determined. For each strain, a volume of cells giving an OD×volume equal to 40 was pelleted, resuspended in 10 mL of SC-His media containing 2% galactose, and used to inoculate a total volume of 100 mL of this media. Cultures were grown for 17 hours at 30° C. and 250 rpm. Cells were then pelleted, rinsed in 0.85% NaCl, and repelleted. Cell pellets (190 mg) were suspended in 380 μL of 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.5, and an equal volume (pellet plus buffer) of pre-rinsed glass beads (Sigma, 150-212 microns) was added. This mixture was vortexed for 30 seconds and placed on ice for 1 minute, and the vortexing/cooling cycle was repeated 7 additional times. The cells were then centrifuged for 6 minutes at 5,000 g and the supernatant was removed to a fresh tube. The beads/pellet were washed twice with 300 μL of buffer and centrifuged, and the supernatants joined with the first supernatant.

An anaerobically-grown culture of E. coli strain DH10B was used as a positive control for D-LDH assays. A culture of this strain was grown to saturation overnight and diluted 1:20 the following morning in fresh LB media. The culture was grown anaerobically at 37° C. for 7.5 hours. Cells were pelleted, washed with 0.85% NaCl, and repelleted. Cells were disrupted using BugBuster™ Protein Extraction Reagent and Benzonase® (Novagen) as per manufacturer's instructions with a 20-minute incubation at room temperature. After centrifugation at 16,000 g and 4° C., the supernatant was transferred to a new tube and used in the activity assay.

Total protein content of cell extracts was quantified using a microplate Bio-Rad Protein Assay (Bio-Rad, Hercules, Calif.). The D-LDH and D-LDH/PCT constructs in YPH500, the pESC-His negative control in YPH500, and the anaerobically-grown E. coli strain were tested for their ability to catalyze the conversion of pyruvate to lactate by assaying the concurrent oxidation of NADH to NAD. The assay mixture contained 100 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.5, 0.2 mM NADH, and 0.5-1.0 μg of cell extract. The reaction was started by the addition of sodium pyruvate to a final concentration of 5 mM, and the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm was measured over 10 minutes. When 0.5 μg of total cell extract protein of the negative control strain was added to the reaction mixture, a decrease in absorbance from −0.01 to −0.02 was seen over 200 seconds. A decrease in absorbance from −0.21 to −0.47 and −0.20 to −0.47 over 200 seconds was seen, respectively, for cell extract from the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH or YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT strains. 0.5 μL (7.85 μg) of cell extract from the anaerobically-grown E. coli strain showed a decrease in absorbance very similar to that for 1 μg of cell extract of the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT strain. When 4 μg of cell extract was used, the YPH500/pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT strain showed a decrease in absorbance from −0.18 to −0.60 over 10 minutes, whereas the negative control strain showed no decrease in absorbance (−0.08 to −0.08).

D. Demonstration of 3-HP Production in S. cerevisiae

The pESC-Trp/OS19/E1, pESC-Leu/EIIa/EIIB, and pESC-His/D-LDH/PCT constructs were transformed into a single strain of S. cerevisiae YPH500 using a Frozen-EZ Yeast Transformation II™ Kit (Zymo Research, Orange, Calif.). A negative control strain was also developed by transformation of the pESC-Trp, pESC-Leu, and pESC-His vectors into a single YPH500 strain. Transformation reactions were plated on SC-Trp-Leu-His media. Individual yeast colonies were screened by colony PCR for the presence or absence of nucleic acid corresponding to each construct.

The strain carrying all six genes and the negative control strain were grown in 5 mL of SC-Trp-Leu-His media containing 2% glucose. These cultures were grown for 31 hours at 30° C., and 2 mL was used to inoculate 50 mL of the same media. The subcultures were grown for 19 hours at 30° C., and their OD600s were determined. For each strain, a volume of cells giving an OD×volume equal to 100 was pelleted, washed with SC-Trp-Leu-His media with no carbon source, and repelleted. The cells were suspended in 10 mL of SC-Trp-Leu-His media containing 2% galactose and 2% raffinose and used to inoculate a total volume of 250 mL of this media. The cultures were grown in bottles at 30° C. with no shaking, and samples were taken at 0, 4.5, 20, 28.5, 45, and 70 hours. Samples were spun down to remove cells and the supernatant was filtered using 0.45 micron Acrodisc Syrige Filters (Pall Gelman Laboratory, Ann Arbor, Mich.).

100 microliters of the filtered broth was used to derive CoA esters of any lactate or 3-HP in the broth using 6 micrograms of purified propionyl-CoA transferase, 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), and 1 mM acetyl-CoA. The reaction was allowed to proceed at room temperature for 15 minutes and was stopped by adding 1 volume 10% trifluoroacetic acid. The reaction mixtures were purified using Sep Pak C18 columns as previously described and analyzed by LC/MS.

Example 14 Constructing a Biosynthetic Pathway that Produces Organic Acids from β-alanine

One possible pathway to 3-HP from β-alanine involves the use of a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (e.g., an enzyme from a class of enzymes that transfers a CoA group from one metabolite to the other). As shown in FIG. 54, β-alanine can be converted to β-alanyl-CoA using a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity and CoA donors such as acetyl-CoA or propionyl-CoA. Alternatively, β-alanyl-CoA can be generated by the action of a polypeptide having CoA synthetase activity. The β-alanyl-CoA can be deaminated to form acrylyl-CoA by a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity. The hydration of acrylyl-CoA at the position to yield 3-HP-CoA can be carried out by a polypeptide having 3-HP-CoA dehydratase activity. The 3-HP-CoA can act as a CoA donor for β-alanine, a reaction that can be catalyzed a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity, thus yielding 3-HP as a product. Alternatively, 3-HP-CoA can be hydrolyzed to yield 3-HP by a polypeptide having specific CoA hydrolase activity.

Methods for isolating, sequencing, expressing, and testing the activity of a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity are described herein.

A. Isolation of a Polypeptide Having β-alanyl-CoA Ammonia Lyase Activity

Polypeptides having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity can catalyze the conversion of β-alanyl-CoA into acryl-CoA. The activity of such polypeptides has been described by Vagelos et al. (J. Biol. Chem., 234:490-497 (1959)) in Clostridum propionicum. This polypeptide can be used as part of the acrylate pathway in Clostridum propionicum to produce propionic acid.

C. propionicum was grown at 37° C. in an anoxic medium containing 0.2% yeast extract, 0.2% trypticase peptone, 0.05% cysteine, 0.5% b-alanine, 0.4% VRB-salts, 5 mM potassium phosphate, pH 7.0. The cells were harvested after 12 hours and washed twice with 50 mM potassium phosphate (Kpi), pH 7.0. About 2 g of wet packed cells were re-suspended in 40 mL of Kpi, pH 7.0, 1 mM MgCl₂, 1 mM EDTA, and 1 mM DTT (Buffer A), and homogenized by sonication at about 85-100 W power using a 3 mm tip (Branson sonifier 250). Cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 100,000 g for 45 minutes in a Centricon T-1080 Ultra centrifuge, and the cell free extract (˜110 U/mg activity) was subjected to anion exchange chromatography on Source-15Q-material. The Source-15Q column was loaded with 32 mL of cell free extract. The column was developed by a linear gradient of 0 M to 0.5 M NaCl within 10 column volumes. The polypeptide eluted between 70-110 mM NaCl.

The solution was adjusted to a final concentration of 1 M (NH₄)₂SO₄ and applied onto a Resource-Phe column equilibrated with 1 M (NH₄)₂SO₄ in buffer A. The polypeptide did not bind to this column.

The final preparation was obtained after concentration in an Amicon chamber (filter cut-off 30 kDa). The functional polypeptide is composed of four polypeptide sub-units, each having a molecular mass of 16 kDa. The polypeptide had a final specific activity of 1033 U/mg in the standard assay (see below).

The polypeptide sample after every purification step was separated on a 15% SDS-PAGE gel. The gel was stained with 0.1% Coomassie R 250, and the destaining was achieved by using 7.1% acetic acid/5% ethanol solution.

The polypeptide was desalted by RP-HPLC and subjected to N-terminal sequencing by gas phase Edman degradation. The results of this analysis yielded a 35 amino acid N-terminal sequence of the polypeptide. The sequence was as follows:

(SEQ ID NO: 177) MV-GKKVVHHLMMSAKDAHYTGNLVNGARIVNQWGD. B. Amplification of a Gene Fragment

The 35 amino acid sequence of the polypeptide having β-alanine-CoA ammonia lyase activity was used to design primers with which to amplify the corresponding DNA from genome of C. propionicium. Genomic DNA from C. propionicum was isolated using the Gentra Genomic DNA isolation Kit (Gentra Systems, Minneapolis) following the genomic DNA protocol for gram-positive bacteria. A codon usage table for Clostridium propionicum was used to back translate the seven amino acids on either end of the amino acid sequence to obtain 20-nucleotide degenerate primers:

(SEQ ID NO: 178) ACLF: 5′-ATGGTWGGYAARAARGTWGT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 179) ACLR: 5′-TCRCCCCAYTGRTTWACRAT-3′

The primers were used in a 50 μL PCR reaction containing 1×Taq PCR buffer, 0.6 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, 2 units of Taq DNA polymerase (Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.), 2.5% (v/v) DMSO, and 100 ng of genomic DNA. PCR was conducted using a touchdown PCR program with 4 cycles at an annealing temperature of 58° C., 4 cycles at 56° C., 4 cycles at 54° C., and 24 cycles at 52° C. Each cycle used an initial 30 second denaturing step at 94° C. and a 1.25 minute extension at 72° C., and the program had an initial denaturation step at 94° C. for 2 minutes and final extension at 72° C. for 5 minutes. The amounts of PCR primer used in the reaction were increased three-fold above typical PCR amounts due to the amount of degeneracy in the 3′ end of the primer. In addition, separate PCR reactions containing each individual primer were made to identify PCR product resulting from single degenerate primers. Twenty μL of each PCR product was separated on a 2.0% TAE (Tris-acetate-EDTA)-agarose gel.

A band of about 100 bp was produced by the reaction containing both the forward and reverse primers, but was not present in the individual forward and reverse primer control reactions. This fragment was excised and purified using a QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.). Four microliters of the purified band was ligated into pCRII-TOPO vector and transformed by a heat-shock method into TOP10 E. coli cells using a TOPO cloning procedure (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). Transformations were plated on LB media containing 50 μg/mL of kanamycin and 50 μg/mL of 5-Bromo-4-Chloro-3-Indolyl-B-D-Galactopyranoside (X-gal). Individual, white colonies were resuspended in 25 μL of 10 mM Tris and heated for 10 minutes at 95° C. to break open the bacterial cells. Two microliters of the heated cells were used in a 25 μL PCR reaction using M13R and M13F universal primers homologous to the pCRII-TOPO vector. The PCR mix contained the following: 1× Taq PCR buffer, 0.2 μM each primer, 0.2 mM each dNTP, and 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase per reaction. The PCR reaction was performed in a MJ Research PTC100 under the following conditions: an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 2 minutes; 30 cycles of 94° C. for 30 seconds, 52° C. for 1 minute, and 72° C. for 1.25 minutes; and a final extension for 7 minutes at 72° C. Plasmid DNA was obtained (QIAprep Spin Miniprep Kit, Qiagen) from cultures of colonies showing the desired insert and was used for DNA sequencing with M13R universal primer. The following nucleic acid sequence was internal to the degenerate primers and corresponds to a portion of the 35 amino acid residue sequence:

(SEQ ID NO: 180) 5′-ACATCATTTAATGATGAGCGCAAAAGATGCTCACTATACTG GAAACTTAGTAAACGGCGCTAGA-3′. C. Genome Walking to Obtain the Complete Coding Sequence

Primers for conducting genome walking in both upstream and downstream directions were designed using the portion of the nucleic acid sequence that was internal to the degenerate primers. The primer sequences were as follows:

(SEQ ID NO: 181) ACLGSP1F: 5′-GTACATCATTTAATGATGAGCGCAAAAGATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 182) ACLGSP2F: 5′-GATGCTCACTATACTGGAAACTTAGTAAAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 183) ACLGSP1R: 5′-ATTCTAGCGCCGTTTACTAAGTTTCCAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 184) ACLGSP2R: 5′-CCAGTATAGTGAGCATCTTTTGCGCTCATC-3′

GSP1F and GSP2F are primers facing downstream, GSP1R and GSP2R are primers facing upstream, and GSP2F and GSP2R are primers nested inside GSP1F and GSP1R, respectively. Genome walking libraries were constructed according to the manual for CLONTECH's Universal Genome Walking Kit (CLONTECH Laboratories, Palo Alto, Calif.), with the exception that the restriction enzymes Ssp I and Hinc II were used in addition to Dra I, EcoR V, and Pvu II. PCR was conducted in a Perkin Elmer 9700 Thermocycler using the following reaction mix: 1×XL Buffer II, 0.2 mM each dNTP, 1.25 mM Mg(OAc)₂, 0.2 μM each primer, 2 units of rTth DNA polymerase XL (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.), and 1 μL of library per 50 μL reaction. First round PCR used an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 5 seconds; 7 cycles consisting of 2 sec at 94° C. and 3 min at 70° C.; 32 cycles consisting of 2 sec at 94° C. and 3 min at 64° C.; and a final extension at 64° C. for 4 min. Second round PCR used an initial denaturation at 94° C. for 15 seconds; 5 cycles consisting of 5 sec at 94° C. and 3 min at 70° C.; 26 cycles consisting of 5 sec at 94° C. and 3 min at 64° C.; and a final extension at 66° C. for 7 min. Twenty μL of each first and second round product was run on a 1.0% TAE-agarose gel. In the second round PCR for the forward reactions, a 1.4 Kb band was obtained for Dra I, a 1.5 Kb band for Hinc II, a 4.0 Kb band for Pvu II, and 2.0 and 2.6 Kb bands were obtained for Ssp I. In the second round PCR for the reverse reactions, a 1.5 Kb band was obtained for Dra I, a 0.8 Kb band for EcoR V, a 2.0 Kb band for Hinc II, a 2.9 Kb band for Pvu II, and a 1.5 Kb band was obtained for Ssp I. Several of these fragments were gel purified, cloned, and sequenced.

The coding sequence of the polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity is set forth in SEQ ID NO:162. This coding sequence encodes the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:160. The coding sequence was cloned and expressed in bacterial cells. A polypeptide with the expected size was isolated and tested for enzymatic activity.

The isolation of a nucleic acid molecule encoding a polypeptide having 3-HP-CoA dehydratase activity (e.g., the seventh enzymatic activity in FIG. 54, which can be accomplished with a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:41) is described herein. This polypeptide in combination with a polypeptide having CoA transferase activity (e.g., a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:2) and a polypeptide having β-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyase activity (e.g., a polypeptide having the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 160) provides one method of making 3-HP from β-alanine.

Example 15 Constructing a Biosynthetic Pathway that Produces Organic Acids from β-alanine

In another pathway, β-alanine generated from aspartate can be deaminated by a polypeptide having 4,4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase activity (FIG. 55). This reaction also can regenerate glutamate that is consumed in the formation of aspartate. The deamination of β-alanine can yield malonate semialdehyde, which can be further reduced to 3-HP by a polypeptide having 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase activity or a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase activity. Such polypeptides can be obtained as follows.

A. Cloning gabT (4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase) from C. acetobutycilicum

The following PCR primers were designed based on a published sequence for a gabT gene from Clostridium acetobutycilicum (GenBank# AE007654):

Cac aba nco sen: (SEQ ID NO: 185) 5′-GAGCCATGGAAGAAATAAATGCTAAAG-3′ Cac aba bam anti: (SEQ ID NO: 186) 5′-AGAGGATGGCTTTTTAAATCGCTATTC-3′

The primers introduced a NcoI site at the 5′ end and a BamH I site at the 3′ end. A PCR reaction was set up using chromosomal DNA from C. acetobutylicum as the template.

H2O 80.75 μL PCR Program Taq Plus Long 10x Buffer 10 μL 94° C. 5 minutes dNTP mix (10 mM) 3 μL 25 cycles of: Cac aba nco sen (20 mM) 2 μL 94° C. 30 seconds Cac aba bam anti (20 mM) 2 μL 50° C. 30 seconds C. acetobutylicum DNA 1 μL 72° C. 80 seconds + (~100 ng) 2 Taq Plus Long (5 U/mL) 1 μL seconds/cycle Pfu (2.5 U/mL) 0.25 μL 1 cycle of: 68° C. 7 minutes  4° C. until use

Upon agarose gel analysis a single band was observed of ˜1.3 Kb in size. This fragment was purified using QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) and cloned into pCRII TOPO using the TOPO Zero Blunt PCR cloning kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). 1 μL of the pCRII TOPO ligation mix was used to transform chemically competent TOP10 E. coli cells. The cells were for 1 hour in SOC media, and the transformants were selected on LB/kanamycin (50 μg/mL) plates. Single colonies of the transformant grown overnight in LB/kanamycin media, and the plasmid DNA was extracted using a Mini prep kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.). The super-coiled plasmid DNA was separated on a 1% agarose gel digested, and the colonies with insert were selected. The insert was sequenced to confirm the sequence and its quality.

The plasmid having the correct insert was digested with restriction enzyme Nco I and BamH I. The digested insert was gel isolated and ligated to pET28b expression vector that was also restricted with Nco I and BamH I enzymes. 1 μl of ligation mix was used to transform chemically competent TOP10 E. coli cells. The cells were recovered for 1 hour in SOC media, and the transformants were selected on LB/kanamycin (50 μg/mL) plates. The super-coiled plasmid DNA was separated on a 1% agarose gel digested, and the colonies with insert were selected. The plasmid with the insert was isolated using a Mini prep kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.), and 1 μL of this plasmid DNA was used to transform electrocompetent BL21(DE3) (Novagen, Madison, Wis.). These cells were used to check the expression of a polypeptide having 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase activity.

B. Cloning mmsB (3-hydroxyisobutyrate Dehydrogenase) from P. aeruginosa

The following PCR primers was designed based on a published sequence for a mmsB gene from Pseudomona aeruginosa (GenBank# M84911):

Ppu hid nde sen: (SEQ ID NO: 187) 5′-ATACATATGACCGACCGACATCGCATT-3′ Ppu hid sal anti: (SEQ ID NO: 188) 5′-ATAGTCGACGGGTCAGTCCTTGCCGCG-3′

The primers introduced a Nde I site at the 5′ end and a BamH I site at the 3′ end.

H₂O 80.75 μL PCR Program Taq Plus Long 10x Buffer 10 μL 94° C. 5 minutes dNTP mix (10 mM) 3 μL 25 cycles of: 94° C. 30 seconds 55° C. 30 seconds 72° C. 90 seconds + 2 seconds/cycle Ppu hid nde sen (20 μM) 2 μL 68° C. 7 minutes Ppu hid sal anti (20 μM) 2 μL  4° C. until use C. acetobutylicum DNA (~100 ng) 1 μl Taq Plus Long (Stratagene, 1 μL La Jolla, CA) Pfu (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) 0.25 μL

A PCR reaction was set up using chromosomal DNA from P. aeruginosa as the template. Chromosomal DNA was obtained from ATCC (Manassas, Va.) P. aeruginosa 17933D.

Upon agarose gel analysis, a single band was observed of ˜1.6 Kb in size. This fragment was purified using QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) and cloned into pCRII TOPO using the TOPO Zero Blunt PCR cloning kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). 1 μL of the pCRII TOPO ligation mix was used to transform chemically competent TOP10 E. coli cells. The cells were recovered for 1 hour in SOC media, and the transformants were selected on LB/kanamycin (50 μg/mL) plates. Single colonies of the transformant grown overnight in LB/kanamycin media, and the plasmid DNA was extracted using a Mini prep kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.). The super-coiled plasmid DNA was separated on a 1% agarose gel and digested, and the colonies with insert were selected. The insert was sequenced to confirm the sequence and its quality.

The plasmid having the correct insert was digested with restriction enzyme Nde I and BamHI. The digested insert was gel isolated and ligated to pET30a expression vector that was also restricted with Nde I and BamHI enzymes. 1 μL of ligation mix was used to transform chemically competent TOP10 E. coli cells. The cells were recovered for 1 hour in SOC media, and the transformants were selected on LB/kanamycin (50 μg/mL) plates. The super-coiled plasmid DNA was separated on a 1% agarose gel and digested, and the colonies with insert were selected. The plasmid with the insert was isolated using a Mini prep kit (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.), and 1 μl of this plasmid DNA was used to transform electrocompetent BL21(DE3) (Novagen, Madison, Wis.). These cells were used to check the expression of a polypeptide having 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase activity.

Other Embodiments

It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims. 

We claim:
 1. A transformed yeast or bacterial cell for producing 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP), wherein the transformed cell comprises a metabolic pathway that produces: acetyl-CoA from pyruvate, malonyl CoA from the acetyl-CoA, and 3-HP from the malonyl CoA, wherein the transformed cell comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that does not naturally occur in the transformed cell and encodes acetyl-CoA carboxylase, a polypeptide that reduces malonyl-CoA, or combinations thereof.
 2. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes an acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
 3. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 2, wherein: the transformed cell is a yeast cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a prokaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase, wherein the transformed cell is a bacterial cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a eukaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase, the transformed cell is a yeast cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a eukaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase, or wherein the transformed cell is a bacterial cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a prokaryotic acetyl-CoA carboxylase.
 4. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the exogenous nucleic acid molecule comprises a non-native promoter operably linked to an endogenous nucleic acid molecule encoding the acetyl-CoA carboxylase, the polypeptide that reduces malonyl-CoA, or combinations thereof.
 5. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a protein that reduces malonyl-CoA.
 6. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 5, wherein, the transformed cell is a yeast cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a prokaryotic protein that reduces malonyl-CoA, or wherein the transformed cell is a bacterial cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a prokaryotic protein that reduces malonyl-CoA.
 7. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the cell further comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes an oxidoreductase polypeptide (EC 1.1.1.-), and wherein the yeast or bacterial cell can convert the 3-HP into propanediol.
 8. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the cell further comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a lipase (EC 3.1.1-), wherein the yeast or bacterial cell can convert the 3-HP into an ester of 3-HP.
 9. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the cell is yeast cell selected from the group consisting of a Saccharomyces cell, Kluyveromyces cell, and Pichia cell.
 10. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the cell is a bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of an Escherichia cell, Lactobacillus cell, Lactococcus, cell Clostridium cell, and Bacillus cell.
 11. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1, wherein the yeast or bacterial cell produces at least 1 g/L 3-HP.
 12. A method of making 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP), comprising: culturing the transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1 under conditions such that the 3-HP is produced by the cell.
 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising isolating the 3-HP from the transformed cell.
 14. The method of claim 12, further comprising: hydrogenating the 3-HP produced from the transformed cell to form 1,3 propanediol; or dehydrating the 3-HP produced from the transformed cell to form acrylic acid.
 15. The method of claim 12, wherein one of the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecules encodes an oxidoreductase polypeptide, and the method further comprises converting the 3-HP into propanediol, or encodes a lipase, and the method further comprises converting the 3-HP into an ester of 3-HP.
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein the transformed yeast or bacterial cell is a yeast, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bacillus, or Escherichia cell.
 17. The method of claim 12, wherein the method produces at least 1 g/L 3-HP from the transformed yeast or bacterial cell.
 18. A method of making 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP), comprising: culturing the transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 1 in the presence of glucose under conditions such that the 3-HP is produced by the cell.
 19. The method of claim 18, further comprising isolating the 3-HP from the transformed yeast or bacterial cell.
 20. The method of claim 18, further comprising hydrogenating the 3-HP produced from the transformed cell to form 1,3 propanediol; or dehydrating the 3-HP produced from the transformed cell to form acrylic acid.
 21. A transformed yeast or bacterial cell for producing 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP), wherein the transformed cell comprises a metabolic pathway that produces: oxaloacetate from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) or pyruvate, aspartate from the oxaloacetate, β-alanine from the aspartate, malonate semialdehyde from the β-alanine, and 3-HP from the malonate semialdehyde, wherein the transformed cell comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that that does not naturally occur in the transformed cell and encodes PEP carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, PEP transcarboxylase, pyruvate carboxylase, aspartate aminotransferase, aspartate alpha decarboxylase, 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, 3-HP dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, or combinations thereof.
 22. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes PEP carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, PEP transcarboxylase, aspartate aminotransferase, aspartate alpha decarboxylase, 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, 3-HP dehydrogenase, or combinations thereof.
 23. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes PEP carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, PEP transcarboxylase, aspartate aminotransferase, aspartate alpha decarboxylase, 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, or combinations thereof.
 24. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes pyruvate carboxylase, aspartate aminotransferase, aspartate alpha decarboxylase, 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, 3-HP dehydrogenase, or combinations thereof.
 25. The transformed cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes pyruvate carboxylase, aspartate aminotransferase, aspartate alpha decarboxylase, 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, or combinations thereof.
 26. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes an aspartate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.1).
 27. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes an aspartate alpha decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.11).
 28. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.19).
 29. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.59).
 30. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein: the transformed cell is a bacterial cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a bacterial 4-aminobutyrate aminotransferase, or the transformed cell is a bacterial cell and the at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule encodes a bacterial 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase.
 31. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the exogenous nucleic acid molecule comprises a non-native promoter operably linked to an endogenous polypeptide.
 32. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the cell further comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes an oxidoreductase polypeptide (EC 1.1.1.-), and wherein the yeast or bacterial cell can convert the 3-HP into propanediol.
 33. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the cell further comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid molecule that encodes a lipase (EC 3.1.1-), wherein the yeast or bacterial cell can convert the 3-HP into an ester of 3-HP.
 34. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the cell is yeast cell selected from the group consisting of a Saccharomyces cell, Kluyveromyces cell, and Pichia cell.
 35. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the cell is a bacterial cell selected from the group consisting of an Escherichia cell, Lactobacillus cell, Lactococcus, cell Clostridium cell, and Bacillus cell.
 36. The transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21, wherein the transformed yeast or bacterial cell produces at least 1 g/L 3-HP.
 37. A method of making 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP), comprising: culturing the transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21 under conditions such that the 3-HP is produced by the cell.
 38. The method of claim 37, further comprising isolating the 3-HP from the transformed yeast or bacterial cell.
 39. The method of claim 37, wherein the transformed yeast or bacterial cell is a yeast, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bacillus, or Escherichia cell.
 40. A method of making 3-hydroxypropionic acid (3-HP), comprising: culturing the transformed yeast or bacterial cell of claim 21 in the presence of glucose under conditions such that the 3-HP is produced by the cell.
 41. The method of claim 40, further comprising isolating the 3-HP from the transformed yeast or bacterial cell. 